GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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Middle Chola Temples
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
1.
2 .
3.
4.
Four Chola Temples
BHULABHAI DESAI MEMORIAL INSTITUTE. BOMBAY
Early Chola Art, Part I
ASIA PUBLISHING HOUSE, BOMBAY
Kopperunjingan (in Tamil)
Solar Kalai Pani (in Tamil)
PAARI NILAYAM, MADRAS
PAARI NILAYAM, MADRAS
Early Chola Art and Architecture (in Tamil)
BUREAU OF TAMIL PUBLICATIONS,
TAMIL NADU GOVERNMENT. MADRAS
6. Early Chola Temples (a.d. 907-985)
ORIENT LONGMAN LTD., DELHI
Middle Chola Temples
Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I
(a.d. 985-1070)
S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
THOMSON PRESS (INDIA) LIMITED
PUBLICATION DIVISION
1975
© Copyright 1975 by S.R. Balasubrahmanyam
The publication of this book was facilitated by the generous financial assistance
given by the Ford Foundation which considered it “a significant research effort
contributing to the preservation of knowledge of an important phase in the
development of Indian art.”
Thomson Press (India) Limited
Publication Division
Faridabad, Haryana
PRINTED IN INDIA
BY AROON PURIE AT THOMSON PRESS (INDIA) LIMITED, FARIDABAD, HARYANA
14 •
^ - \y ^
7 2 ^ 6 / 4-4 S.f&pJ-
$odbi - .. . 2 ..! . 6 . * 17 ..— — -
Dedicated,
to my wife
Kaveri
and
to the sacred memory of
her parents
P.R. Vaidyanatha Ayyar
and
Anantha Lakshmi
Foreword
I know Shri S.R. Balasubrahmanvam for some years and I had the pleasure
of presiding over the function arranged at New Delhi when his art book on
Early Ghola Temples was released on 12th May, 1971. He is acknowledged
as an outstanding living authority on the subject of South Indian monuments
and art in general and of the Gholas in particular. He has planned four
volumes on Ghola temples based on a systematic, scientific survey of these
monumental works of art. He has already published two volumes which have
received well-deserved appreciation from scholars of repute, Indian and foreign.
The present book, the third in the series, deals with the Middle Chola period,
covering the reigns of the most illustrious Chola ruler Rajaraja I and his
brilliant successors who ruled from a.d. 985 to 1070.
Among the dynasties which ruled over South India, the Cholas were
undoubtedly the greatest. They ruled the land with glory for a long and
unbroken period of 430 years (a.d. 850 to 1280). They were skilled admini-
strators whose main concern was the welfare of their subjects. Their land
survey was systematic, elaborate and thorough. There was a highly skilled
and well-trained bureaucracy, both at the local and central levels, to man a
stable and efficient administration. Rajaraja I was a dynamic military leader.
The Chola country had the good fortune of having Rajaraja I and his four
successors of eminence who, by their valour and leadership in war, maintained
the honour and glory of their forefathers.
The Gholas were successful not merely on land but also on the seas. During
the reigns of Rajaraja I and his son, the Ghola empire attained its widest limits
and touched the heights of prosperity and glory. What Rajaraja I began, his
son Rajendra I completed. During their time, the Chola empire extended on
land from Kanya Kumariin the South to the mouth of the Ganga in the north.
The Cholas were also a great sea power. Sri Lanka and the Lakshadvip
( Laccadives'! islands were conquered; the Chera fleet was overpowered. Send-
ing a naval expedition across the wide sea of the Bay of Bengal, the Gholas
subdued the mighty empire of Sri Vijaya of the Sailendras whose sway
spread over ‘Malaya, Singapore and Indonesia’ with their capitals at Sri Vijaya
vm
FOREWORD
(in Sumatra) and Kadaram (Kedah in the isthmus of Kra). The Nicobar
islands (Ma-Nakkavaram) came under Chola rule.
The Cholas were well-versed not only in methods of war but also in the
promotion of the arts of peace. They were the finest temple-builders of
South India and their allied arts, architecture, sculpture — stone and bronze,
painting, music, drama and dance received tremendous encouragement and
patronage, and these arts attained the highest level of progress. The Chola
bronzes and jewellery reached unprecedented heights of excellence.
Though the Cholas have built hundreds of temples all over the land, even
today standard books on Indian architecture mention only about half a
dozen of them and even these are not given detailed treatment. In the two
volumes already published, the author has identified and described nearly a
hundred and fifty temples, which could be ascribed to the Early Chola
period (a d. 850 to 985). The present volume covers the history of a hund-
red temples of which about a dozen could be assigned to the earlier period.
These were built not only in the heart-land of the Chola country but also in
the areas brought under their rule by their expansion. The Rajarajesvaram
temple built by Rajaraja I at his capital is the most magnificent of Indian
structural temples — the temple par excellence. This is fully dealt with in this
volume. In addition, more than fifty temples were built all over the land.
Among them the outstanding ones are the Vanavan Mahadevi Isvaram (Siva
Devale II) in Sri Lanka, the Siva and Vishnu temples at Attur, the Palli-
kondar temple at Tirunelveli, the Tiruvalisvaram temple — all in the Pandya
country; the Siva and Vishnu temples at Olagapuram and Dadapuram (South
Arcot District) and the Arinjigai Isvaram at Melpadi in Tondainadu.
About twenty-five temples could be ascribed to the age ofRajendra 1, the
most outstanding being the Gangaikonda-Solisvaram built by him at his newly
built Chola capital. Among other impressive temples built during the reign
may be mentioned the Vishnu temple at Mannarkoyil (Pandya country), the
temples at Tiruvorriyur, Kulambandal and Tiruppasur (all in the Chingleput
district), the Pidari temple at Kolar (Karnataka), and the memorial temples
built at Kalidindi (Andhra Pradesh) over the mortal remains of three Chola
generals who fell while defending the principality of Vengi of the Eastern
Clialukyas under Chola supremacy.
I understand that the last phase of Chola art and architecture is another
bright chapter of South Indin history. I sincerely hope that the author will
carry on the completion of this series by publishing the art history of the last
phase of this illustrious dynasty who have remarkable achievements to their
credit.
New Delhi
April 4 1974
Y.B. Chavan
Finance Minister
Government of India
Preface
S.R. Balasubrahmanyam’s third volume entitled “Middle Chola Temples’’
carries the saga of Chola architecture, sculpture and inscriptional evidence
from the reign of the great Raj.traja(A.D. 985-1014) upto the very short reign
of Adhi Rajendra (a.d. 1069-70), the son of Vira Rajendra (a.d. 1063-1069)
who is the last of the famous royal Chola temple builders of the Middle period.
Thereafter followed a short interregnum of political chaos till Kulottunga I
(a.d. 1070-1120) came to the throne to revive Chola glory. The author's
previous two volumes on Early Chola architecture and sculpture had told the
story of the prolific temple-building activities of Aditya I (a.d. 871-907). the
real founder of Chola supremacy in the South and that of his successors till
Rajaraja ascended the throne. No doubt this is a brilliant period in the history
of Chola art and there are several aspects in which it was never surpassed,
particularly in the sculptures which adorned these early shrines in their deva-
koshlas and other parts of the temple structure. But with Rajaraja the Chola
temple underwent a transformation. This did not occur as a fortuitous circum-
stance. It was conditioned by the greatness of the Chola empire, its expansion
from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea, its all-victorious arms, its liberal
paternal administration and the religious fervour of the monarch and his
subjects. This pinnacle of glory to which the fortunes of the Chola dynasty
rose is indissolubly bound with the reign of Rajaraja. Everything about this
ruler and his kingdom could truly be described in the superlative and thus it
came about in the natural course of events that the greatest of all South Indian
temples was conceived, built and consecrated by him. From the beautiful
but small temples of Aditya I and Parantaka I to the mighty cathedral shrine
of Rajarajeesvaram of Tanjavur is a progression in architectural vision and
achievement so far-reaching, and in so limited a space of time, that Rajaraja
must in some respects be regarded as the greatest temple builder of the South.
And here in this third volume Shri Balasubrahmanyam commences the story
of this unique achievement and its continuation into the reign of Rajaraja's
son Rajendra and even thereafter. The story is unfolded by the author in its
fullest perspective. This architectural achievement is surveyed against the
X
PREFACE
background of the history of the period — political, social and religious. It does
not stand in isolation as a technical dissertation on the building of Middle
Chola temples but becomes a living drama within which a mighty architectural
achievement took place. Without the comprehension of this drama and its
ever rising tempo, the true glory of Chola art can never be adequately unfolded
or understood. The great temple of Rajaraja is commonly known as the
Brihadesvaram though there seems to be no reason why it should not always
be referred to by its true name of Rajarajeesvaram, the authenticity of which
is vouched for by inscriptional evidence. It is not enough to understand the
architectural plan and layout of the Rajarajeesvaram. This temple itself
reveals what it meant to its builder, his court, his officers and his people. It is
indeed a testament in stone, for the numerous inscriptions beautifully engraved
on its walls yield a wealth of detail with regard to the donations made to it and
its highly elaborate administration. It symbolizes a religious fervour and ferment
which no doubt led to the propagation of such stories as the miraculous finding
of the Devaram hymns by Rajaraja. Rajaraja never forgot that the enormous
wealth which he had acquired was no less by conquest than by good adminis-
tration. A unique feature of the temple is the several stalwart figures on the
walls holding sword and shield. Shri Sivaramamurti, the well known historian
of South Indian art. and myself both firmly believe that the underlying idea of
these figures, which may ostensibly be regarded as guardian figures, was to
immortalize Rajaraja’s great army commanders who had brought glory to
him and the royal house of the Cholas. They remind us of the “Immortals’’
of the Achaemenid kings in a more distant past. Not only is the Rajarajeesvaram
famous for its architecture and sculpture but also for its paintings wherein
is seen the last lingering greatness of the Ajanta tradition, though conceived
and executed in a different manner. Whether the usually accepted interpre-
tation of certain famous scenes in these paintings such as the one which is
regarded as Rajaraja and his queens worshipping at the shrine of Nataraja
at Chidambaram and another which is thought to be Rajaraja and his religi-
ous mentor Karur Deva is correct or not need not be discussed here. This
much seems certain that the inspiration of these paintings was Rajaraja's
attachment to the story of the life of the Navanar Sundaramurti and that of
his friend Cheraman Perumal. which was later to be immortalized in the
Periya Puranam of Sekkilar in the 12th century.
It is indeed sad, as Shri Balasubrahmanyam observes, that hardly any of the
bronzes that were gifted to the Rajarajeesvaram temple exist today. The great
Nataraja is one exception and another is a well-known Tripurantaka, formerly
amongst the temple images and now in the Tanjore Art Gallery. But there is
reason to believe that two mote of the bronzes gifted to this temple do exits
though no longer in the temple itself. Both were originally in the Srinivasa-
gopalachari collection. One is the well known “Chola King” who is almost
certainly Rajaraja himself, and the other is the “Chola Princess” who may
PREFACE
XI
well be his famous sister Kundavai, a great devotee of this shrine and who like
the famous Sembiyan Mahadevi, spent her life in religious work and donations.
These bronzes have been frequently illustrated.
1 he might of the Chola empire, great as it was in the reign of Rajaraja,
increased even more in the reign of his famous son Rajendra. As if to symbolize
this greatness and also the gratitude of the monarch to the God whom both
father and son so ardently worshipped and whose blessings had carried the
Chola arms to unprecedented military and naval success and the realm to
economic prosperity, Rajendra built the great fane of Gangaikondacholapuram.
Though certainly not built in any spirit of rivalry to his father’s achievement,
it does in fact almost rival that achievement. Here several of the splendid
bronzes appear to be contemporary with the founding of the shrine.
Though these two great temples undoubtedly dominate the entire range of
Chola architecture and sculpture with which the present publication deals,
yet the author has brought to light many other temples — as many as eighty
assignable to the period of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I — some hitherto wrongly
classified and others not generally known or referred to by other writers.
With regard to the Tiruvalisvaram shrine in the Tirunelveli district, not far
from the taluk headquarters of Ambasamudram. it is a most interesting temple
from the point of view of its many sculptures though it has no devakoshta images
as seems to be usual in temples of the Pandyan domain. But it has an inscription
of the 11th year of Rajaraja and the author ventures to suggest that the temple
even if built in the late Parantaka period was completed by Rajaraja. This
seems to me not unlikely, having regard to some of its sculptures, but a more
intensive study of Pandyan temples is necessary for firmer conclusions.
A number of temples of the period of Rajendra I. other than the famous
Gangaikondacholesvaram. are also dealt with both from the point of inscrip-
tional evidence and style to establish the period to which they belong. This is
not always an easy task, because inscriptions are numerous and the earliest
one on a shrine n ed not necessarily belong to the period of its foundation.
Reconstructions, renovations and additions further complicate the problem
of dating many a shrine. But by far and large it may be said that the material
on which the author has based his conclusions is adequate and correctly inter-
preted with the full consciousness that there are bound to be shrines in each
classification on which the last word has yet to be spoken. This non-dogmatic
approach, so essential in a subject so complex as Chola temple chronology,
is a most admirable feature of the text.
The author leads the reader to an understanding of his viewpoint without
any jarring notes of arbitrary pronouncements. Epigraphy is necessarily the
basis of all studies in relation to South Indian temples and Shri Balasubrahman-
yam, who is one of the greatest Tamil Epigraphists of our times, has collected
and interpreted a vast amount of material which will ever remain the basis on
which further studies can be founded. In a sense the great period of Chola
XU
PREFACE
temple art ends with Rajendra but what followed can never be neglected, for
it is also of high importance. Shri Balasubrahmanyam has realised this and
continued his study of the Middle Ghola period by taking it upto the time
of Adhi-Rajendra (a.d. 1069-70). Thereafter there was political confusion
till Kulottunga I stabilized Ghola rule once more. From this point, it is hoped
the author will continue his great saga and bring it up to the period of Kulot-
tunga III, the builder of the famous Tribhuvanam temple.
This book is easily the richest contribution to South Indian art; what adds to
its merit is that it is profusely illustrated, most of the illustrations being pub-
lished for the first time and some of them of rare quality.
Karl Khandalavala
Editor, Lalit Kala and Chairman,
Lalit Kala Akademi, Bombay
10th April 1975
Introduction
What I have undertaken in this and the sister volumes is the first scientific
and systematic survey of dated Chola temples — a venturesome and onerous
task. The material is so vast, and the physical spread of the monuments so
extensive, that this work should have been done either by Government or by
endowed institutions with a team of scholars, surveyors, epigraphists and drafts-
men, backed by substantial funds. Instead, it has been left to the lot of an
individual to undertake this task without the facility of finances, the necessary
staff or even a reference library. It is my regret that I could not afford to give
the monuments the time necessary for their proper study. My main qualifi-
fication to undertake this effort, however, is love for and dedication to the
subject, spread over a period of half a century.
When Prof. Nilakanta Sastri wrote the history of ‘The Colas’ in 1934, he
hoped to publish a separate study of Chola art but regretted in his second
edition in 1955 that “the promise of a separate study of Chola Art held forth in
the preface to the first edition had not materialised”, and added “difficulties
in the way of a comprehensive treatment are unfortunately still too many.
These will disappear only if the Archaeological Department or a South Indian
University undertakes this task”. There has been no progress since then. I am
sure that in the light of this background, scholars would overlook the short-
comings in my humble study of a great subject. My only justification for this
daring enterprise is that even a limited survey such as mine has not been
attempted so far.
I have been ploughing my lonely furrow all along; but the brunt of the work
on these volumes has fallen on my son, B. Venkataraman, who is being associated
with me in an honorary capacity in this project. We have made an on-the-spot
study of almost all the temples included in this survey. The far-off temples
I could not visit, my son has done. He has also photographed a number of the
temples and sculptures, not otherwise available to me. He has also prepared the
draft on Rajarajesvaram, Gangaikondacholesvaram and of the temples of
the Karnataka desa. His help in the arrangement of the subject matter
and the selection and processing of the sumptuous illustrations has been
XIV
INTRODUCTION
considerable. Without formally lending his name, he has worked in effect
as co-author of this work.
The Cholas were the builders of the largest number of temples in South
India. The Tamil Saiva Saints who lived in the seventh, eighth and ninth
centuries have sung the praise of the Lords of 274 temples in South India,
which are distributed geographically as follows: 190 temples in Chola Nadu,
on both banks of the Kaveri, 32 in Tondai Nadu, 22 in Nadu Nadu and 14 in
Pandi Nadu. To this, we have to add a large number of temples built later
by the Chola kings, their queens, ministers, nobles and subjects.
The period of Rajaraja I and his successors upto the accession of Kulottunga I
(a.d. 985 to 1070; is the grandest in the history of South India. In the very
few standard works on Indian Art and Architecture, only two temples belonging
to the period are dealt with — the Rajarajesvaram and the Gangaikondacholis-
varam. The present survey, fairly comprehensive though not thorough, presents
more than a hundred temples assignable to the period based on unimpeach-
able epigraphical and reliable literary evidence.
A rich artistic legacy has been left to us by the Cholas, but it has not been
properly studied. V.A. Smith observed that '‘After a.d. 300, Indian sculpture
properly so called hardly deserves to be recognised as art”. Even in such a
modern scholarly work as J.N. Banerjee’s The Development of Hindu Iconography
(Calcutta University) we find the erroneous statement that the sculptures of the
Ananda tandava form of Nataraja found in South India belong “most of them to
the 14th or 15th century a.d. or even later”. The three volumes of this series
on Chola temples so far published, and the fourth under preparation, will
dispel these hasty and ill-informed views, perpetuated by an absence of a survey
of these monuments and sculptures.
Now, a few remarks of a general nature. In his monumental work, A Study of
History, Arnold Toynbee writes:
“Mankind is going to destroy itself unless it succeeds in growing together
something into a simple family. For this, we must become familiar with each
other, and this means becoming familiar with each of their history, since man
does not live just in the immediate present .”
To this growing realisation of the concept of ‘one world’, the civilization of
South India generally, and the culture and art of the Cholas in particular,
have a significant contribution to make. Recently, two books have been pub-
lished. One is the Vivekananda commemoration volume on the theme of
‘India’s contribution to world thought and culture’. The other is D.P. Singhal’s
‘India and the World Civilization’. Both deal with India’s role in human
history and her contacts with and influence on the peoples of the rest of Asia,
Africa, Europe and America. They emphasise that Indian civilisation is dis-
tinguished by its antiquity, continuity and vitality, with a powerful impact
on the other peoples of the world.
Another Indologist, Dr. H.C. Quaritch Wales, pointed out that the Sailendras,
INTRODUCTION
XV
who built up a vast maritime empire which endured for live centuries and
contributed a great deal to the llowering of Indian thought and culture in
Java and Cambodia, do not find mention in modern histories and encyclo-
pedias and such an omission is a serious one in the context of a balanced his-
tory of the world. The achievements of the Cholas who conquered them were
no less remarkable and deserve an honourable place in this context.
It is with a heavy hearc that I have to record the passing away, recently,
of two of my dearly valued friends and colleagues. Mr. P.Z. Pattabhiramin,
brought up by the fostering care of the late Prof. G.J. Dubreuil and later by
Dr. Filliozat, Director of the French Institute of Indology, Pondicherry, tire-
lessly laboured to build up an impressive collection of photographs, carefully
annotated and indexed, housed in the above Institute, which forms a fitting
memorial to him. I also bemoan the loss of my friend Prof. Benjamin Rowland
of the Fogg Musem, Cambridge, Mass., United States of America. He was an
outstanding authority on Indian Art and Architecture. His two masterly
works: The Art and Architecture of India (III edition, Pelican, 1967) and
Zentral Asien (in German, Kunst Welt, 1972), will remain fitting monuments
to his scholarship and deep interest in the culture and art of India and Asia
in their traditional aspect. May I also place on record my sense of deep sorrow
at the demise of my valued friend Dr. Moti Chandra whose deep learning,
ripe wisdom and sterling character will be cherished by all fellow scholars?
The Tamil Nadu Government have been warm in their appreciation of
my contributions in the field of Ghola Art. When in 1972 they appointed an
expert committee to study and report on the genuineness or otherwise of the
Nataraja bronze now in the Sivapuram temple, I was nominated its Chairman;
we had regretfully to report that the bronze was a fake substitute, and recom-
mended that efforts should be made to recover the original idol that had been
whisked away to a foreign country. It is good to learn that the Norton Simon
Foundation, where it ultimately found its way, has agreed to return the idol.
We also recommended that a full and systematic photographic survey of all
bronzes in the temples of the Tamil Nadu should be undertaken immediately.
I am glad that this survey has begun its work already. Later in February,
1973, 1 was called upon to preside over the inauguration of the First Seminar on
Hero-stones; and I was also invited to preside over the inaugural function of
the Seminar on the Cholas held at Madras in June, 1973.
I am beholden to the Director-General of Archaeology, Government of India,
the Superintending Archaeologist, Southern Circle and the Conservation staff
of the Rajarajesvaram temple for their kind help and cooperation in the study
of the temples under the control of the Central Government.
I place on record my indebtedness to Sliri Yashwantrao B. Chavan (formerly
Minister for Finance and now for External Affairs) for his Foreword and
Shri Karl J. Khandalavala for the Preface contributed to this volume.
The Ford Foundation of the United States of America have placed me under
XVI
INTRODUCTION
a deep debt by giving me a generous grant to supplement my meagre resources
towards the publication of this volume also. The various ministries of the
Government of India concerned with processing the proposal of the Founda-
tion to grant me assistance for this project have earned my gratitude by
clearing the proposal expeditiously. The publication would not have been
possible but for the sanction of this grant. I am grateful to the Foundation and
in particular to its present Chief in India, Dr. Harry E. Wilhelm, for this help.
The French Institute of Indology gave me a number of illustrations from
their large collection. The Director-General of Archaeology, New Delhi, the
Director of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu Government, Madras, and the Director
of the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, provided me a few of
their photographs; and I acknowledge my indebtedness to these bodies in
detail elsewhere. Quite a large number of the photographs, some of them
rare, particularly of the more inaccessible monuments, have been taken and
made available to me by my son Venkataraman.
I am much obliged to many of my brother-scholars. Dr. M.N. Deshpande,
Director-General of Archaeology, has given me a lot of help. Shri K.S. Rama-
chandran, Senior Technical Assistant, and Mrs. K. G. Rao, Librarian of the
Central Archaeological Department, Dr. G.S. Gai and Shri K.G. Krishnan of
the Epigraphical Department, Mysore, Shri R. Nagaswamy, Director of
Archaeology, Tamil Nadu, Dr. A.V. Narasimhamurti, Director of the Mysore
Archaeological Survey, Dr. J. Filliozat and members of the French Institute
of Indology, Pondicherry, Dr. James C. Harle of the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, Shri H. Sarkar of the Temple Survey, Archeological Department,
Southern Circle, Dr. Promod Chandra and Shri M.A. Dhaky of the American
Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, Shri C. Sivaramamurti, and Shri
Sadashiva Gorakshar of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay and many
other friends have extended to me their valuable co-operation and help. I
render them my sincere thanks.
Thomson Press (India) Limited, who printed my previous book, Early Chola
Temples, very kindly came forward to include this volume as one of their publi-
cations. I am greatly obliged to Shri V.V. Purie, Shri Aroon Purie, Shri R.S.
Rawal and Shri H.K. Mehta and Shri B.L. Ganju of the Production Depart-
ment and his team, for the keen and sustained interest shown by them in my
work. All the members of the Press have taken a personal interest in this
publication and extended to me special privileges which I greatly appreciate.
I am thankful to Shri D. Kannan, Shri V. Balasubrahmanyan and Shri
Jagdish Ram Sharma for a lot of technical assistance in the processing of the
illustrations. Wing Commander K.S. Balakrishna, Shri Haridas Ghosh and
Shri Sudhansu Sekhar Patnaik prepared the index. It was a labour of love. I
am thankful to them. In typing out the script at various stages, Messrs.
S. Varadarajan, C.K. Rajappa, D.R. Srinivasan, K.N. Lakshmi Narayanan
and T.R. Aravamudan have been of great help in various ways.
INTRODUCTION
xvn
My sons B. Natarajan, B. Venkataraman and B. Ramachandran and my
daughter-in-law Leela Venkataraman and my grand children Nandini
Venkataraman and Mohan Venkataraman have been deeply involved in my
project and shared my interest, and each has made a valuable contribution to
this volume. I owe a special debt to Leela, who functioned virtually as my
secretary, during the last one year, doing all the chores that writing this book
involved besides helping me in numerous other ways in the publication of
this book. I am proud and happy about their association. With Natarajan's
contribution on Chidambaram, The City of the Cosmic Dance (Orient
Longman), and Venkataraman’s specialisation on Later Cholas, apart from his
works Laddigam (Orient Longman) and Temple Art under the Chola Qjieens
(Thomson Press), Chola art may be said to have become a family legacy. I
pray for the completion of the series.
And in conclusion, I must pay my humble homage to the holy sage who
presides over the Kamakoti Peetham at Kanchi who has always been to me a
source of inspiration and encouragement. His light has guided me in all my
work.
S.R. Bahsubrahmanyam
C-I/9, Humayun Road,
New Delhi
26th April, 1975.
It is with a sense of deep personal as well as professional loss that I have to record the passing
away (when this volume was in the last stages of printing) of that great historian and archeo-
logist of South India, Professor K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. It was my privilege to be associated
with him intimately for well over half a century. His masterly contributions to the study of
the history of the Pandyas and of the Cholas and their contacts with the kingdom of Sri Yijaya
constitute a fitting permanent memorial to him and will remain a source ol inspiration to
scholars for all time to come.
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
List of Map, Plans, Sketches and Illustrations
Rajaraja I
Temples of Rajaraja I’s Time
Rajendra I
Temples of Rajendra I’s Time (with an Historical
Survey)
Successors of Rajendra I
Temples of the Time of the Successors of Rajendra I . .
Supplement to Early Cliola Temples
Conclusion
Map, Plans, Sketches and Illustrations
Index
vii
ix
xiii
xx
i
H
230
240
334
345
374
408
411
Map, Plans, Sketches and
Illustrations
1. Map, Plans and Sketches:
(i) Plan : Tanjavur, Rajarajesvaram, ground plan
(ii) Plan : Gangaikondasolapuram, Gangaikondasolisvaram, plan
(iii) Sketch : Gangaikondasolapuram, Gangaikondasolisvaram, Disposition of Yimana
Devatas
(iv) Map : Chola Empire in the Middle Chola Period (a.d. 985-1070)
(v) Plan : Tiruvorriyur, Adipurisvarar temple, ground plan
(vi) Sketch : Adhishthanams of selected Middle Chola Temples
2. Illustrations (Colour plates — paintings, structures and sculptures in stone and metal)
i. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Rajaraja I (painting)
2. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
garbhagriha, upper tier
3. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
garbhagriha, lower tier
4. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chandesvarar shrine
5. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Sadyojata
6. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Rajaraja I and his queens
worshipping Nataraja (painting)
7. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chitsabha (painting)
8. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Nataraja in Chitsabha (painting)
9. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chitsabha with srivimana and
devaganas (painting)
10. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Rajaraja I and Karuvur
devar (painting)
11. T anjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Tripurantakar (painting)
12. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Bharata natya karanas (stone)
13. Tiruvenkadu {Tanjavur
Art Gallery)
Kalyanasundarar group (bronze)
14. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram (Tanjavur
Art Gallery)
Tripurantakar (bronze)
15. Tiruvenkadu (Tanjavur Art Gallery)
Bhairavar (bronze)
16. Tiruvenkadu (Tanjavur
Art Gallery)
Bhikshatanar (bronze)
17. Tiruppasur
Vachisvarar temple
Apsidal srivimana
XXI
Description of Plates
3. Illustrations (Black & white)
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
1. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Nataraja (bronze)
2. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
View of temple complex
3. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
The two gopurams
4. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
The temple — general view
5. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Dvarapala [left)
6. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Dvarapala (right)
7. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Garbhagriha, south face (with
Vikramasolan tiruvasal)
8. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Garbhagriha, west face
9. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Bhikshatanar and kumbha-
panchara — garbhagriha, south face
10. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chandesvarar shrine
11. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Lingodbhavar
12. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Siva-Uma Alinginamurti
13. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Gangadharar
14. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Kalarimurti
15. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Nataraja
16. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Sarasvati
1 7. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Siva
18. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Rajaraja and Karuvur Devar
19. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Vishnu and Ganapati
20. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Mahalakshmi
21. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chandesvarar
22. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Subrahmanyar
23. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Chandrasekharar
24. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Hariharar
25. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Lingodbhavar
26. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Bhairavar
27. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Buddha panel
28. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Nandi
29. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Nandi (metal), ardhamandapa
30. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Ganapati (Parivaralaya)
31. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Inscribed pillar in peristyle
32. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Varahi, Saptamatrika group
33. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Isana, Dikpala
34. Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
Varuna, Dikpala
35. Tiruvaiyaru
\ ada-kailasam
Dakshinamurti
36. Tiruvaiyaru
\ ada-kailasam
Brahma
37. Tiruvalanjuii
Kshetrapala shrine
Srivimana (in ruins )
38. Tiruvalanjuii
Kshetrapala shrine
Garbhagriha wall (inscribed),
with Kshetrapalar sculpture
39. Alagadriputtur
Svarnapurisvarar temple
Dvarapala
40, Alagadriputtur
Svarnapurisvarar temple
Lingodbhavar
41. Alagadriputtur
Svarnapurisvarar temple
Brahma
42. Tiruchchengattangudi
Uttarapatisvarar
Central shrine, srivimana
XXII
Plate Place
Xo.
43. Tiruchchengattangudi
44. Tiruchchengattangudi
45. Tiruchchengattangudi
46. Tiruchchengattangudi
47. Tiruchchengattangudi
48. Tiruchchengattangudi
49. Tiruchchengattangudi
50. Tiruchchengattangudi
51. Tiruchchengattangudi
52. Tiruchchengattangudi
53. Tiruchchengattangudi
54. Tirukkadaiyur
55. Tirukkadaiyur
56. Tirukkadaiyur
57. Tirukkadaiyur
58. Tiruppugalur
59. Tiruppugalur
60. Tiruppugalur
61. Nagapattinam
6 1 a. Nagapattinam
62. Nagapattinam
63. Nagapattinam
64. Nagapattinam
65. Nagapattinam
66. Nagapattinam
67. Nagapattinam
68. Nagapattinam
69. Nagapattinam
70. Nagapattinam
71. Tirukkalar
72. Tirukkalar
73. Tirukkalar
74. Tirukkalar
75. Tirukkalar
76. Tirukkaravasal
77. Tirukkaravasal
Temple
Description
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Uttarapatisvarar temple
Amritaghatesvarar temple
Amritaghatesvarar temple
Amritaghatesvarar temple
Amritaghatesvarar temple
Konapiran temple
Konapiran temple
Konapiran temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Karonasvamin temple
Parijatavanesvarasvami
temple
Parijatavanesvarasvami
temple
Parijatavanesvarasvami
temple
Parijatavanesvarasvami
temple
Parijatavanesvarasvami
temple
Kannayiranathasvami
temple
Kannayiranathasvami
temple
Central shrine, srivimana,
adhishthanam
Vatapi Ganapati shrine
Vatapi Ganapati
Dakshinamurti, devakoshta figure
Lingodbhavar, devakoshta figure
Durga
Ardhanari
Bhikshatanar
a! Urdhva-tandavamurti
b) Kalasamharamurti,
c) Kankalamurti,
Tandavamurti and Gajasamhara-
murti
Bhikshatanar and Tripurantakar
Srivimana and ardhamandapa
Kalakala devar shrine
Dvarapala, right
Dvarapala, left
Srivimana
Bhikshatanar
Rajaraja I’s inscription
Garbhagriha — Thyagaraja shrine
Inscription
Nataraja, ardhamandapa,
central shrine
Dakshinamurti
Lingodbhavar
Brahma
Durga
Vrishabharudhar (bronze)
Bhikshatanar (bronze)
Nataraja (bronze)
Sivakami (bronze)
Nataraja and Sivakami (bronze)
Tani Amman (bronze)
Chandesvarar
(bronze)
Manikkavasagar and
Sundarar (bronze)
Appar and
Sambandar (bronze;
Dakshinamurti
Bhikshatanar
( bronze)
XX1XX
Plate
Xo.
Place
Temple
Description
78.
Tirukkara vasal
Kannayiranathasvami
temple
Nataraja and Sivakami
(bronze)
79-
Tirukkaravasal
Kannayiranathasvami
temple
Vrishabhantikar
(bronze)
80.
Tirukkaravasal
Kannayiranathasvami
temple
Somaskandar
(bronze)
81.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Somaskandar
(bronze)
82.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Uma (Somaskandar group)
(bronze)
83-
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Siva-Uma Alinginamurti
(bronze)
84.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Nataraja (bronze)
Ba-
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Sivakami (bronze)
se.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Dvarapala
87.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Dvarapala
88.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Yoga-Dakshinamurti
89-
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Ganapati (parivara devata)
go.
Tirunedungalam
Tirunedungalanathar
temple
Ardhanari
9'-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Srivimana
92-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
93-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Sankara-Narayana, western
devakoshtha
94-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Brahma
95-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Durga
96.
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Anaaya-Nayanar (stone)
97-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Ramayana Panel (Sugriva
pattabhishekam)
98.
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Somaskandar (bronze)
99-
Tirumangalam
Samavedisvarar temple
Nataraja and Sivakami (bronze)
100.
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Srivimana, north view
101 .
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Adhishthanam
102.
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Ganapati
103.
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Brahma
104.
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Durga
105.
Madagadippattu
Kundanguli Mahadevar
temple
Vishnu (griva-koshlha )
XXIV
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
106. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Garbhagriha
107. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Srivimana
1 08. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
1 7th year inscription of Rajarajal
1 09. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Durga
1 10. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Bhikshatanar
hi. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Nataraja and Sivakami (bronze)
1 1 2. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Somaskandar (bronze)
1 13. Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar temple
Tani Amman (bronze)
1 14. Olagapuram
Siva temple
Srivimana (in ruins)
1 15. Olagapuram
Vishnu temple
General view
1 1 6. Olagapuram
Siva temple
Dakshinamurti (original) and
Bhikshatanar (inserted)
1 1 7. Olagapuram
Siva temple
Durga
1 18. Olagapuram
Vishnu temple
Vishnu
1 19. Ennayiram
Alagiya Narasimhaperu-
mal temple
General view
120. Ennayiram
Alagiya Narasimhaperu-
mal temple
Srivimana (superstructure)
121. Esalam
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Srivimana
122. Esalam
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Ganapati
123. Esalam
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Vishnu
124. Esalam
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Durga
125. Esalam
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Vinadhara Dakshinamurti
126. Dadapuram
Manikanthesvarar temple
General view
127. Dadapuram
Karivarada Perumal
temple
Srivimana
128. Tirumukkudal
Yenkatesa perumal temple General view
129. Tirumukkudal
Venkatesa perumal temple Vishnu (stone)
130. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Srivimana
(Urogadam)
(Rajarajesvaram)
13 1. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Inscription
(Urogadam)
(Rajarajesvaram,!
132. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Dvarapala
(Urogadam )
(Rajarajesvaram ;
133. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Dvarapala
(Urogadam;
( Rajarajesvaram )
134. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Ganapati
(Urogadam;
(Rajarajesvaram )
135. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Brahma
(Urogadam)
(Rajarajesvaram)
136. Sivapuram
Siva temple
Durga
(Urogadam)
(Rajarajesvaram ;
137. Kalakkattur
Agnisvarar temple
General view
138. Kalakkattur
Agnisvarar temple
Ganapati
139. Kalakkattur
Agnisvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
140. Kalakkattur
Agnisvarar temple
Ardhanari
1 4 1 . Tirurnalai
Kundavai Jinalaya
Neminathat
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
142.
Tirumalai
Kundavai Jinalaya
Mural painting
143-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Srivimana of Somanathesvarar
shrine
144.
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Srivimana of Pallikondar shrine
145-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Garbhagriha, devakoshtha
146.
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Balasubrahmanya (vimana devata)
‘47-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Yoga-Narasimha ( vimana devata)
148.
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Brahma (vimana devata )
149-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Sambandar (bronze)
150.
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Appar (bronze)
15'-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Sundarar (bronze)
‘52-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Cheraman Perumal (bronze)
153-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Rama (bronze)
"54-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Sita (bronze)
■55-
Attur
Somanathesvarar temple
Dancing Krishna (bronze)
156.
Gangaikondan
Kailasapati temple
Srivimana
157-
Gangaikondan
Kailasapati temple
Ganapati (bronze)
158.
Gangaikondan
Kailasapati temple
Somaskandar — Siva (bronze)
>59-
Gangaikondan
Kailasapati temple
Parvati (bronze)
160.
Gangaikondan
Kailasapati temple
Nataraja (bronze)
l6l.
Seramadevi
Ramasvantin temple
Srivimana (north-west view)
l6‘2.
Seramadevi
Ramasvatnin temple
Dancing Krishna (bronze)
163.
Seramadevi
Ammanathasvamin temple Nandikesvarar (bronze)
164.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Main gopuram
165.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Garbhagriha
166.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Bhogasakti (original bronze)
167.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Tani Amman (bronze)
168.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Manikkavasagar and Sundarar
(bronze)
169.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Appar and Sambandar (bronze)
170.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Bhikshatanar
171.
Brahmadesam
Kailasanathar temple
Wood carving (main door)
172.
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Srivimana, general view
*73-
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Srivimana west face, north side
174.
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Srivimana west face, south side
•75-
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Srivimana, north face
176.
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar temple
Subrahmanya (griva koshla, east)
■77-
Polannaruv'a
Siva Devale No. 2
General view, south face
.78.
Malur-Patna
Arumolisvaram temple
General view (north-east)
179-
Malur-Patna
Arumohsvaram temple
Inscription in ardhamandapa
180.
Malur-Patna
Jayangondasola vinnagar
General view
181.
Malur-Patna
Jayangondasola vinnagar
Garbhagriha ( without super -
structure )
182.
Malur
Kailasesvarar temple
Main gopuram ! without super-
structure)
183.
Malur
Kaiiasesvarar temple
Garbhagriha and ardhamandapa
184.
Malur
Apprameyasvami temple
Srivimana ( superstructure )
185.
Malur
Apprameyasvami temple
Vishnu (stone sculpture!
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
186.
Tiruvisalur
187.
Tirunaraiyui
188.
Tirunaraiyur
189.
Tiruvenkadu
190.
Tiruvenkadu
I 9 I -
Tiruvenkadu
192.
Tiruvenkadu
■ 93 -
Tiruvenkadu
194-
Tirukkodikka
195-
Tiruvakkarai
196.
Valuvur
■97-
Valuvur
198.
Valuvur
'99-
Valuvur
200.
Valuvur
201.
Valuvur
202.
Tanjavur
203. Paruttiyur
204. Gangaikondasolapuram
205. Gangaikondasolapuram
206. Gangaikondasolapuram
207. Gangaikondasolapuram
208. Gangaikondasolapuram
209. Gangaikondasolapuram
2 1 o. Gangaikondasolapuram
2 1 1 . Gangaikondasolapuram
212. Gangaikondasolapuram
213. Gangaikondasolapuram
214. Gangaikondasolapuram
215. Gangaikondasolapuram
2 1 G. Gangaikondasolapuram
217. Gangaikondasolapuram
218. Gangaikondasolapuram
2 1 9. Gangaikondasolapuram
220. Gangaikondasolapuram
22 1 . Gangaikondasolapuram
222. Gangaikondasolapuram
223. Gangaikondasolapuram
Siva Yoganathasvamin
temple
Soundaresvarar temple
Soundares\ arar temple
Svetaranyesvarar temple
(Tanjavur Art Gallery)
Svetaranyesvarar temple
(Tanjavur Art Gallery!
Svetaranyesvarar temple
(Tanjavur Art Gallery)
Svetaranyesvarar temple
Svetaranyesvarar temple
(Tanjavur Art Gallery)
Tirukkotisvarar temple
Siva temple
Yiratthanesvarar temple
Viratthanesvarar temple
Yiratthanesvarar temple
Yiratthanesvarar temple
Yiratthanesvarar temple
Yiratthanesvarar temple
Rajarajesvaram temple
Kalyanav aradaraja
Pcrumal temple
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
( Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
( Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
C Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Tulabhara and Hiranyagarbha,
Rajaraja I and Dantiskti Yitanki
Rajaraja I and Xambi Andar
Xambi
Dakshinamurti
Yrishabhantikar and Consort,
front view (bronze)
Yrishabhantikar and Consort
rear view (bronze)
Kalyanasundarar group (bronze/
Somaskandar (bronze)
Kannappar (bronze)
Tripurantakar (bronze/
Xataraja (bronze;
Xataraja (bronze)
Somaskandar (bronze)
Bhikshatanar (bronze)
Gajasamharamurti (bronze/
Nandikesvarar and Consort
( bronze)
Ayyanar (bronze)
a) Kailasa scene-dancing figures
b) Cheraman to Kailasa
(paintings)
Rama, Lakshmana and Sita
1 bronze)
Srivimana (General view)
Garbhagriha, south face
Dakshina Kailasarn
Uttara Kailasarn
Chandesanugrahamurti
Sarasvati
Kalarimurti
Ganapati
Durga
Yishnu with Sndcvi and Bhudevi
Xataraja
Xataraja
Brahma with His Consorts
Hariharar
Bhairavar
Bhikshatanar
Manmathadaliauamurti
Umasahitar
Gangadharar
1 )urga
XXVII
Plate Place Temple Description
No.
■224.
Gangaikondasolapuram
225.
Gangaikondasolapuram
226.
Gangaikondasolapuram
227.
Gangaikondasolapuram
228.
Gangaikondasolapuram
229.
Gangaikondasolapuram
230.
Gangaikondasolapuram
231.
Gangaikondasolapuram
232.
Uttattur
233-
Uttattur
234-
Uttattur
235-
Uttattur
236.
Uttattur
237-
Uttattur
238.
Uttattur
239-
Uttattur
240.
Uttattur
241-
Uttattur
242.
Uttattur
243-
Uttattur
244.
Uttattur
245-
Uttattur
246.
Uttattur
247-
Uttattur
248.
Tiruppattur
249-
Tiruppattur
250.
Tiruppattur
251-
Tirunallaru
252.
Tirunallaru
253-
Ramanathanko) il
254-
Ramanathankoyil
-55-
Ramanathankos il
256. Ramanathankoyil
257. Ramanathankoyil
238. Ramanathankoyil
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Gangaikondasolisvaram
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Siddharatnesvarar temple
Avvanar temple
Ayyanar temple
Avvanar temple
Darbharanycsvarar temple
Darbharanvcsvarar temple
Ramanathasvamy temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ramanathasvamy temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ramanathasvamy temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ramanathasvamy temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ramanathasvamy temple
i.Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ramanathasvamv temple
^ Panchavan N ladev i
Isvaram)
Subrahmanyar
Vrishabhantikar (bronze)
Nandi kesvarar (bronze)
Tani Amman (bronze)
Bhogasakti (bronze)
Nataraja and Sivakami ( bronze)
Somaskandar (bronze)
Karttikeya (bronze)
Ganapati
Adhikara Nandi
Nataraja
Bhikshatanar (on a pillar)
Uma
Brahma
Dakshinamurti
Bhairavar
Kannappar (bronze)
Karaikkal Ammaiyar (bronze)
Chandesvarar (bronze)
Cheraman Perumal (bronze)
Nataraja and Sivakami (bronze'
Chandrasekharar and Uma
(bronze)
Bhogasakti 1 bronze)
Bhikshatanar (bronze)
Gopuram
Temple — general view
Ayyanar and Consorts
Bhogasakti (bronze)
Ganapati (bronze)
General view
Inscription (Rajcndra I)
Dvarapala
Dvarapala
Sriviinana
Lingodbhavar
XXVI 11
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
259. Ramanathankoyil
Rainanathasvamv temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Bhikshatanar
260. Ramanathankoyil
Ramanathasvamv temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Ardhanari
26 1 . Ramanathankoyil
Ramanathasvamy temple
(Panchavan Madevi
Isvaram)
Gangadharar
262. Tiruvaiyaru
Ten Kailasam
Ganapati
263. Tiruvaiyaru
Ten Kailasam
Brahma
264. Tiruvaiyaru
Ten Kailasam
Durga
265. Tiruvaiyaru
Ten Kailasam
General view
266. Tiruvaiyaru
Ten Kailasam
Xolamba pillars in the peristyle
267. Tiruvarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
General view with Kamalalayam
tank in foreground
267. Tirmarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Rajanaravanan tirumandapam
269. Tiruvarur
"Thyagarajasvami temple
Devasrivan mandapam
270. Tiruvarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Achalesvaram with the hall in fron
271. Tiruvarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Manu Niti Cholan episode — the
chariot crushing the calf
272. Tiruvarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Manu Niti Cholan episode — The
horse
273. Tiruvarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Manu Niti Cholan episode — The
cow demanding justice
274. Tirmarur
Thyagarajasvami temple
Manu Niti Cholan episode— The
prince crushed
27 5. Panaiyavaram
Netroddharakasvamin
temple
Annapurna
276. Panaiyavaram
Netroddharakasvamin
temple
Durga
277. Panaiyavaram
Netroddharakasvami n
Yirabhadrar and Ganapati
temple
( Saptamatrika group)
278. Ku\am
Tripurantakesv aram
Ganapati
279. Ku\am
Tripurantakesvaram
Dakshinamurti
280. Knvam
Tripurantakesvaram
Lingodbhavar
281. Kuvam
Tripurantakesvaram
Brahma
282. Kuvam
Tripurantakesvaram
Durga
283. Tiruppasui
Yachisvaram temple
Srivimana f south-west)
284. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Srivimana (south-west)
285. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Srivimana, garbhagriha,
outer wall (north-west)
288. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Upper tala — North face
287. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Upper tala —West face
288. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Upper tala — North face
( north section )
289. Tiruppasur
Ya< hisvaram temple
Upper tala South fare
290. Tiruppasur
Yachisvaram temple
Dvarapala
XXIX
Plate Place
jXo.
Temple
Description
291. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Dvarapaia
292. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Virabhadrar
293. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Bhairavar
294. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Ganapati
295. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Lingodbhavar
296. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Brahma
297. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Durga
298. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Somaskandar (bronze)
299. Tiruppasur
Vachisvaram temple
Tani Amman (bronze)
300. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Apsidal Srivimana — East view
301. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Apsidal Srivimana — rear view
302. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Apsidal Srivimana — -side view
303. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
304. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Vishnu
305. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Brahma
306. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Durga
307. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Nataraja shrine
308. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Ekapadamurti — niche figure,
rear of Nataraja shrine
309. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Kali
310. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Ganapati
311. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Panchamukha Ganapati
312. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Subrahmanyar
313. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Gaulisa
314. Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar temple
Adi-Sankaracharya, with
disciples
315. Kulambanda
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
General view ( before renovation)
316. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
General view ( before renovation)
317. Kulambanda)
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
General view ( after renovation )
318. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
( Gangaikondasolisvaram)
Garbhagriha, west face
319. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
Bhikshatanar
320. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
321. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
Lingodbhavar
322. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram )
Brahma
323. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gagaikondasolisvaram)
Durga
324. Kulambandal
Jagannathesvarar temple
(Gangaikondasolisvaram)
Dakshinamuiti
igriva)
325. Mannarkoyil
Rajagopalasvamin temple
Srivimana, west view
326, Mannarkoyil
Rajagopalasvamin temple
Garbhagriha
xxx
Plate Place
No.
Temple
Description
327. Mannarko\il
Rajagopalas van tin temple
Garbhagriha, adhishthanam
mouldings
328. Mannarkoyil
Rajagopalasvamin temple
Rasi-Chakram, wood-carving
329. Mannarko>il
Rajagopalasvamin temple
Kulasekhara Alvar shrine
330. Sitibcta
Bhairavar temple
Srivimana
331. Sitibcta
Bhairavar temple
Garbhagriha wall, with Bhairavar
332. Sitibeta
Bhairavar temple
Somaskandar (bronze)
333. Sitibeta
Bhairavar temple
Bhairavar (bronze)
334. Kolar
Kolaramma temple
Garbhagriha (west face) with
Rajendra 1’s shrine (extreme right)
335. Kolar
Kolaramma temple
Rajendra shrine, adhishthanam
mouldings, with Rajendra's
inscription
336. Kolar
Kolaramma temple
Central shrine, srivimana
superstructure
337. Kolar
Kolaramma temple
Another view
338. Tiruvalangadu
Vataranya temple
Xataraja (bronze, Madras
Museum)
339. Tiruvalangadu
Vataranva temple
Urdhvatandavamurti (bronze)
340. Tiruvalangadu
Vataranya temple
Kali (bronze)
341. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Pertimal
temple
General view
342. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Perumal
temple
Garbhagriha
343. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Perumal
temple
Upapitham and adhishthanam
344. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Perumal
temple
Miniature panel in adhishthanam
345. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Perumal
temple
Miniature panel in adhishthanam
346. Tribhuvani
Varadaraja Perumal
temple
Miniature panel in adhishthanam
347. Mannargudi
Kailasanathar temple
Somaskandar (bronze)
348. Mannargudi
Kailasanathar temple
Adhishthanam of gopuram
(Rajadhiraja I’s inscription)
349. Tiruvengadu
Tanjavur Art Gallery
Bhikshatanar (bronze)
350. Tiruvengadu
Madras Museum
Ardhanarisvarar (front view)
(bronze)
351. Tiruvengadu
Madras Museum
Ardhanarisvarar (rear view)
(bronze)
352. Olakkur
Agastyesvarar temple
Srivimana
353. Olakkur
Agastyesvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
354. Olakkur
Agastyesvarar temple
Bhairavar
355- Vikkanampundi
Vijayalayasolisvaram
General view
356. Vikkanampundi
Vijayalayasolisvaram
Chandesvarar
357. Vikkanampundi
Vijayalayasolisvaram
Ganapati
358. Vikkanampundi
Vijayalayasolisvaram
Virabhadrar
359. Vikkanampundi
V ijayalayasolisvaram
Chamunda
XXXI
Plate
No.
Place
Temple
Description
360 .
Vikkanampundi
Yijayalayasolisvaram
Varahi — 1
361 .
Vikkanampundi
Yijayalayasolisvaram
Brahmi
362 .
Kothamangalam
V ishnu temple
(Rajakesari Yinnagarain’i
General view
363 -
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
General view
364 -
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Adhishthanam mouldings
3 6 5-
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Inscription on the adhishthanam
(Rajaraja I)
366 .
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Dakshinamurti
3 6 7-
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Hariharar
368 .
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Brahma
369 -
Gopurappatti
Pachchil Amalisvaram
Durga
370.
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Ardhanari
371-
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Dakshinamurti
372-
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Bhikshatanar
373-
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Amman (bronze)
374-
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Amman (bronze) (rear view)
375-
Tiruppainjili
Nilivanesvarar temple
Siva and Uma (bronze)
376.
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesvarar
temple
Srivimana
377-
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesyarar
temple /
Ganapati
378-
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesvarar
temple
Dakshinamurti
379-
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesvarar
temple
Ardhanari
380 .
Tiruvasi
MarruraKvaradesvarar
temple
Durga
381 .
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesvarar
temple
Bhairavar
382 .
Tiruvasi
Marrurai-varadesvarar
temple
Bhogasakti (bronze)
383 -
Tiruvanaikka
J ambukes varam
Subrahmanyar
384 -
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Dakshinamurti
385 -
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Nataraja (bronze)
386 .
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Sivakama Sundari (bronze)
387 -
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Adhikaranandi (bronze)
388 .
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Bhairavar (bronze)
389 -
Tiruvanaikka
Jambukesvaram
Ganapati (bronze)
39°-
Paluvur
Sundaresvarar temple
Ghandesvarar
39 1 -
Paluvur
vSundaresvarar temple
General view (front)
392.
Paluvur
Sundaresvarar temple
Inscription (Paluvur Nakkan
Koyil)
393-
Ghakkarapalli
Chakra vagesvarar temple
General view
394-
Ghakkarapalli
Chakravagesvarar temple
Inscription (Rajaraja I)
395-
Ghakkarapalli
Chakravagesvarar temple
Makara toratta
396.
Ghakkarapalli
Chakravagesvarar temple
Surya (headless)
397-
Ghakkarapalli
Chakravagesvarar temple
Lingodbhavar
XXX11
Plots Place Temple Description
No.
398. Tenner i
399. Tenneri
400. Tenneri
40 1 . Tenneri
402. Tenneri
403. Tenneri
404. Tenneri
405. Tenneri
406. Taadi-Malingi
407. Sivapuram
408. Tanjavur
409. Konerirajapuram
410. Vadakkuppanaiyur
Kandaiisvarar temple
Kandalisvarar temple
Kandaiisvarar temple
Kandalisvarar temple
Kandaiisvarar temple
Kandalisvarar temple
Kandalisvarar temple
Kandalisvarar temple
Treasure trove
Treasure trove
Treasure trove
Uma-Mahesvarar temple
Madras Museum
General view
North wall
Rajaraja I’s inscription
D vara pa la
Dvarapala
Dakshinamutti
Vishnu
Brahma
Kali (Early Chola)
Nataraja (bronze), original
Nisumbhasudani
Nataraja
(bronze, giant size)
Rama, Lakshmana, Sita and
Hanuman
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FOR PHOTOGRAPHS: COURTESY OF THE
1. Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi: Pis 1-3.
2. Director, The French Institute of Indology, Pondichery: Pis 7-16, 32-38, 81-85, 100- 105,
121-125, i 37 -I 4 °> 209-231, 244-247, 250-252, 303 - 3 i 4 » 319-322, 341-346, 355 - 36 i.
3. Director of Archaeology, Government of Tamilnadu: Pis 106-113, 141, 283-293, 338,
350-351 (Madras Museum).
4. American Academy of Indian Studies, Varanasi: Pis 300-302.
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PI C 2 Garbhagnha (upper tier)
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PI C 12 Bharata Nat\am
Karanas stone
TANJAVUR
Rajarajesv aram
TIRUYEXKADU
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PI G 13 ' Kalavanasundarar
group bronze
1
Rajaraja I
(A.D. 985 to 1014)
The Cholas were one of the greatest and most gifted of the dynas-
ties which ruled in India; they held sway for a continuous period
of about 430 years (a.d. 850-1280). In comparison, the Mauryas
ruled only for about 137 years (b.c. 322-185), and the Guptas
for about 223 years (a.d. 320-543). The Vijayanagara empire
lasted for about 340 years (a.d. 1336-1676) with claim to great-
ness only for the first 200 years thereof, i.e., till a.d. 1565.
Rajaraja I can legitimately claim to have laid the real foun-
dations for the glory and longevity of the Chola empire. He was
a great soldier and general like Alexander of Macedon, Julius
Caesar and Hannibal. The Cholas had the great good fortune of
his being followed by a line of successors equally adept in the arts
of war and administration. His son Rajendra I and his grandsons
Rajadhiraja I, Rajendradeva II and Virarajendra, who followed
him on the throne in that order, each has a claim to be rankde
among the greatest generals of their or any other age — a unique
record in the history of mankind. The Cholas were no less great
in the fields of administration, culture and art. They were the
greatest temple builders India has known, and during the period
under survey, in particular, their achievements in this held
attained unprecedented and unsurpassed heights. Their temples
were built not only in their homeland but also in the conquered
territories, extending from Sri Lanka in the south to the river
basins of the Tungabhadra and the Godavari and even as far as
the Mahendra hills (in modern Ganjam district of Orissa) 1 in
2
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the north; in addition, permission was granted to the Sailendra
kings of Sri Vijaya and Kadaram for the erection of (Buddhist)
temples and viharas at Nagappattinam. A few Jain temples were
also built in this period.
Rajaraja I was the son of Sundara Chola alias Parantaka II
by his queen Vanavan Mahadevi. The Tiruvalangadu Plates
mention that “at the birth of Arulmolidevan (future Rajaraja I),
the wives of the serpent Adisesha, who carries the earth on his
shoulders, danced for joy on the belief that he (Arulmolidevan)
would relieve their husband of the burden of bearing the earth.”
(SII, III, 19). He was born under the asterism Satabhishak ( Sada -
yam in Tamil) in the month of Aippasi (SII, II, 26; also Travan-
core Archaeological Series, I, p. 292). In his formative years,
he came under the powerful and constructive influence of his
great-grand-aunt Sembiyan Mahadevi (the queen of Gandara-
ditya and mother of Uttama Chola) and of his own elder sister
Kundavai. It was the people’s wish even during his boyhood
that he should succeed his father to the Chola throne in order to
“dispel the darkness of the Kali age”. But Arulmolidevan (as
he was then known) resisted the popular pressure and gracefully
let his paternal uncle ascend the throne since the latter greatly
coveted it. In this act, Rajaraja I exhibited not only great self-
denial but political insight and statesmanship as well. He,
however, associated himself with his uncle as heir-apparent and
allowed the latter’s son Madhurantaka to wield great influence
and political power even after his own accession to the Chola
throne.*
The Chola kings called themselves alternately Parakesari-
varman (Vijayalaya being the first such) and Rajakesarivarman
(Aditya I being the first such). Occasionally, embellished forms
of these titles were used. There is one inscription of Vijayalaya’s
which describes him as “Tanjai-kotta-ko-parakesaripanmar”, i.e.,
the Parakesari who took (conquered) Tanjavur. Aditya I was
generally known only as Rajakesarivarman, but his Tillaisthanam
inscription calls him ‘‘‘Tondai-nadu-paavina Cholan” — the Chola
*See Appendix on the Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates.
RAJARAJA I
3
who overran the Tondai (Pallava) country. His son and suc-
cessor, Parantaka I, was known as “ Madiraiyum Ilamum konda
Kop-Parakesarivarman” . Rajaraja I made a notable departure from
prior practice by introducing in the prasasti part of his inscrip-
tions an up-to-date account of the conquests and other achievements
of his reign, so that, as the years go by, we find the prasasti increas-
ing in size. His earliest inscriptions describe him as “ Salai-kalam-
arutta ” or “ Kandalur-salai-kalam-arutta” — one who destroyed
the (Chera) fleet at Kandalur Salai (on the west coast between
Kanya Kumari and Trivandrum) 2 . From his eighth regnal year,
however, his inscriptions begin with the historical introduction
of “ Tirumagal pola”. The prasastis generally describe his conquests
in chronological order, giving particulars of great value for the
historian and belying the notion generally prevalent among
western historians that Indians had no historical sense.* This
innovation of his was happily continued and indeed considerably
elaborated by his successors and later by the Pandyas as well,
and the prasastis of these rulers form perhaps the most valuable
source for the reconstruction of the history of the land. While the
originals (in copper plates or palm-leaf manuscripts) of grants,
royal writs and other documents have been mostly lost in the
course of the political convulsions that the country passed through,
it is fortunate that copies thereof, so assiduously made and preserv-
ed for us by having them engraved on the sacred walls of stone-
temples built by them in such large numbers, have come down to
us for our knowledge and enlightenment.
According to the prasastis of Rajaraja I, his first important
conquest was over the Cheras already referred to, the Chera
contemporary being Bhaskara Ravivarman Tiruvadi (a.d.
978-1036). He destroyed the Chera fleet at Kandalur Salai and
*A learned French art critic, Marguerita Marie Deneck, in her recent book, Indian Art, The
Colour Library of Art, Hamlyn (Oxford), makes the following observations
“It is difficult to know anything about Indian History, particularly, early history. It is often
considered that the Indian mind does not possess an historical sense because it is unused to thinking of the
past in terms of sequence and was slow to record chronological history : External events alone allowed
scholars to date certain facts accurately.” (italics ours)
South Indian inscriptions — especially those of Rajaraja I and his successors — will disprove
this sweeping and erroneous generalisation due to prejudice or ignorance.
4
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
captured Vilijnam and the fort of Udagai (north-west of Nager-
koyil in the Kanya Kumari district) . He also defeated the Pandya
king Amarabhujanga and annexed the Pandyan territory,
after which victory he claims to have “destroyed the splendour
of the Pandyas.” Certain territories, known as Sitpuli nadu and
Pakki nadu, which had been annexed to the Chola kingdom
under Parantaka I but were lost to the Rashtrakutas after
the battle of Takkolam, were brought back into the Chola
dominion by Rajaraja I, as we learn from a Kanchipuram inscrip-
tion of his sixth regnal year (are 79 of 1921). He next conquer-
ed the Vengi country and supported Saktivarman and his
brother Vimaladitya of the Eastern Chalukyas against their
rivals. Rajaraja’s daughter (the younger), Kundavai, was given
in marriage to Vimaladitya by way of fostering close ties between
the two dynasties to foil the designs of the Western Chalukyag
under Satyasraya on the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom. Gangapadi,
Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi consisting of parts of southern
and eastern Karnataka and of the north-western districts of Tamil
Nadu (North Arcot, Salem, Dharmapuri etc.) as also portions
of Andhra Pradesh (districts of Kurnool, Anantapur etc.) were
annexed to the Chola empire. So were Kollam and Kudamalai
Nadu (Coorg). The land of the Rashtrakutas, called Irattaipadi-
elarai-laksham (Rattapadi — 7,50,000), which had been already-
overrun by the Western Chalukyas, was also conquered and
added to the Chola empire. Then the kingdom of Kalinga, lying
between the Godavari and the Mahanadi rivers, was overrun.
Rajaraja I then invaded Ila-mandalain (Sri Lanka) and annexed
it. According to the Tiruvalangadu Plates, Rajaraja I “excelled
Sri Rama by crossing the sea, not with the aid of a causeway
built by monkeys but by using ships and conquering Lanka”
(verse Boj. By this time, the naval supremacy of the Cholas had
been well-established in the Indian Ocean, and his reign cul-
minated with the conquest of the 12,000 islands off the western
( Arabian) sea. Thus his kingdom extended from Sri Lanka in
the south to the basin of tiie Tungabhadra in the north and
Mahendragiri (The Mahendra mountains) in the north-east.
Rajaraja I seems to have raised and maintained a large
RAJA RAJ A I
0
standing army. A Western Chalukya inscription at Hottur (in
Dharwar district of Karnataka State) avers that the Chola army
which fought a bloody battle there under the command of his
son Raj’endra I against Satyasraya of the Western Chalukyas
consisted of nine lakhs of soldiers. The total strength of the stand-
ing army must thus have been considerably larger than this
figure, when we take into account his engagements in other
sectors such as the Pandya country, Malainadu, Vengi and Sri
Lanka. The fact that the commanders of the various armies
dreaded defeat and the consequent wrath of the king is evident
from the endowments made by a large number of them to the
Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur, seeking divine blessings
for averting defeat.
Rajaraja I organised a highly bureaucratic system of adminis-
tration which aimed at central stability and local autonomy.
His revenue administration in particular was noteworthy. By
his seventeenth regnal year, he had completed a land survey
of his empire; land as small in extent as 1/52,428,800,000 of a
veli was measured and assessed to revenue; there was an elaborate
cadre of revenue officers such as accountants, ledger-keepers,
issuers of royal orders and executors of royal decrees, at all levels
— village, district and central. It is a pity that most of the original
documents have disappeared and we have to content ourselves
with just a few glimpses of the elaborateness and complexity
of the revenue organization, as can be gleaned from stone inscrip-
tions and royal copper plate grants such as the Larger Leyden
Grant. It is of interest to note that some decades later in England,
William I (the Conqueror) organized the land-survey recorded
in the Domesday Book. Rajaraja’s survey was as elaborate as
that of William I, as evidenced by the detailed descriptions of
the lands, boundaries, systems of irrigation, revenues to be col-
lected and revenue-exemptions in respect of lands endowed to
Rajarajesvaram and other temples in his vast empire.
Before his accession to the throne, Rajaraja was known as
Arulmoli (Devan). His other titles and surnames are: Rajarajan,
Kshatriya Sikhamani, Rajendra Simhan, Uyyakkondan, Pandya
Kulasani, Keralantakan, Nittavinodan, Rajasrayan, Sivapada-
6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
sekharan, Jana-nathan, Ravikula Manikkam, Nigarili Cholan,
Cholendra Simhan, Chola Marttandan, Raja Marttandan,
Telunga-kula-kalan, Kirti Parakraman, Mummadi Solan, Chola
Narayanan, Jayangonda Solan, Singalantakan, Taila-kula-kalan
and others (are 78 of 1930-31).
Of the many queens of Rajaraja I, the Chief one was Loga
Mahadevi alias Danti Sakti Vitanki. Of the others, Vanavan
Mahadevi alias Tribhuvana Mahadevi has the distinction of
being the mother of Rajendra I. The others were : Chola Mahadevi
Trailokya Mahadevi, Panchavan Mahadevi, Abhimanavalli,
Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Vira-
narayani and Villavan Mahadevi. Many of them have either
built temples of their own or donated bronzes to temples.
The greatest event of the life of Rajaraja I was the building
of the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur. Some hold that there was
an older temple in that place called that of Tanjait-tirut-talik-
kulattar mentioned in Appar’s Devaram, the Tiruttandagam, and that
it was this temple that Rajaraja I rebuilt as the grandest stone-
temple of all times. It may be remembered that he was a close
associate and disciple of Sembiyan Mahadevi, who, as we know,
rebuilt the Tirunallam temple of the Devaram hymns fame as
the Gandaradityam and clearly stated the fact of such conver-
sion in her dedicatory inscription at Konerirajapuram. If the
older temple in Tanjavur had indeed been the nucleus of the
Rajarajesvaram, Rajaraja would have followed his mentor’s
example and explicitly stated that such a conversion had been
effected. In the absence of such a statement, it seems inconceiv-
able that the great temple would have been erected on an older
foundation.
Some hold that the stones for this temple came from the banks
of the Narmada. This view appears rather far-fetched. The
quarrying area for the stones used in this temple should have
been the same as for the other innumerable temples of the region.
The earliest reference to this temple occurs in the nineteenth
regnal year of Rajaraja I. The stupik-kudam (copper pot for the
hnial) was handed over to the temple authorities on the 2 75th
day of the twenty-fifth year of his reign, and the consecration of
RAJARAJA I
7
the temple should have taken place about that time. Rajaraja I
seems to have died in or after his twenty-ninth regnal year; before
his death, he ordered the recording on the srivimana of this temple
all gifts to the temple made by himself, his elder sister, his queens
and other donors ; these inscriptions contain, in particular, the
fullest and most detailed description of the bronzes gifted by
the king and other donors, incorporating such details as height,
weight, metal-composition, whether solid or hollow, whether
seated or standing, descriptions of the pitha and the prabha, num-
ber of hands and (other) adjuncts, attendant deities, and numer-
ous other details baffling the imagination — a record again
unique in history.
A fuller account of the temple will be found in the next chapter,
which deals with the temples of the time of Rajaraja I.*
Rajaraja I was a great king. All the elements were so mixed
in him — piety, courage, liberality, gratitude, sweetness, courtesy,
wisdom, intelligence, purity, tranquillity, dignity, mercy, for-
bearance, vision, firmness of purpose, perseverance and devotion
to the welfare of all — that Nature might stand up and say,
“Here was not only a man, but a supreme leader of men\”
The great qualities of the Chola family and their claims to
to be leaders of men are brought out in the eulogy of the Court
poet in the Larger Leyden Grant.
“As long as the moon-crested deity (i.e. Siva) sports with
His Consort on the Kailasa Mountain, as long as Hari (Vishnu)
performs meditative sleep (Yoga-nidra) on the serpent-couch
on the ocean of milk, and as long as the sole light of all the world
dispels the dense darkness of the world, so long may the Chola
family protect from danger the circle of the whole earth.”
(verse 2)
‘From a fragmentary inscription of Rajendra I found in the Pushpavanesvarar temple at
Tiruppunturutti (ARE 120 of 1931), we learn that a donation of land was made to a Savarna
named Naranan Bhattadittan for the reading of Sri-Rajaraja-vijayam. This must have been a
composition in praise of Rajaraja I, recounting his great victories and was evidently different
from the Rajarajesvara-nalakam, which was staged in the temple at Tanjavur (SII, II, p. 306).
We do not know the language of this composition, whether it was Tamil or Sanskrit, nor have
we any trace of it now.
8
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
ttw srw fafdw wn;j k^Jl
sfkl'HUsfl ffoff !T>TfT?RTTrfrr I
srq^rfH cfrwi^
N *\ N
TPTTTTFTT^DTfeT iT^DP^rF^T#?!: II
The Cholas belonged to the Solar race, and to Rajaraja I
was attributed the virtue of dispelling the dense darkness of the
world and protecting his subjects from danger.
RAJARAJA I
9
Notes
i Mahendragiri is in die modern Ganjam district of Orissa. It lay on the border between the
medieval kingdoms of Vengi and Kalinga. On this hill, there is a temple of Gokarnesvarar, with
shrines for Kunti and Yudhishthirar. There are four undated inscriptions in this place. One of
them (ARE 397 of 1896) is the Tamil version, in three fragments, of another in Telugu (ARE
396 of 1896). The texts are fragmentary and no safe deductions could be drawn from them.
They describe the setting up of two jayaslambhas (pillars of victory) on Mahendragiri by one
Rajendra after he had defeated one Vimaladitya of the Kulutas. Venkayya, and following him,
others, identified this Vimaladitya with the Vengi prince Vimaladitya (son of Vishnuvardhana
of the Eastern Chalukyas) and concluded that he was defeated by Rajendra Chola in battle and
taken prisoner to the Chola court.
Recently, B. Venkatakrishna Rao, in his History of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (written with
a touch of chauvinism), has challenged the usual identification of the victor Rajendra and has
postulated that the Mahendragiri battle should be ascribed to the period of Kulottunga 1 and as
part of the Kalinga expedition ( a.d. 1093-96) and that the victor was Rajendra Chola, the Vela-
nati viceroy of Vengi and a vassal of Kulottunga Ts. This identification seems far-fetched. My own
view is that the victor at Mahendragiri was indeed Rajendra Chola I and that the vanquished
was Vimaladitya of the Kulutas (ruling to the north of Vengi) and not Vimaladitya of the Eastern
Chalukyas who presumably went to the Chola court of his own free will — and not as a prisoner of
war — after being driven out of Vengi. The last-mentioned figures in an inscription of the twenty -
ninth year of Rajaraja I as the donor of eight silver kalasams (finials) weighing 1,148 kalanjus to the
Loga-Mahadevi Isvaram built at Tiruvaiyaru by Rajaraja Ts queen of that name. We know
that he married Kundavai, daughter of Rajaraja I, and was restored to the rulership of Vengi
with Chola help and ruled for seven years (a.d. 1015-22). It is not improbable that Rajendra
Chola I subdued a recalcitrant chief at Mahendragiri to secure the borders of Vengi, of which
he was the overlord. Another fragmentary inscription (ARE 858 of 1917) > n l h e neighbourhood
mentions Rajendra and Madhuranlaka (surname of Rajendra I), thus confirming the control of
this region by Rajendra I.
As the Chola victory at Mahendragiri is not found included in the description of the Gangetic
campaign of Rajendra Ts, it seems likely that it took place independently of and before it, in an
effort to re-establish the Chola protege Vimaladitya on the Vengi throne and to help overcome
the enemies on his borders. It seems safe to conclude that, at the close of Rajendra I s reign,
Mahendragiri formed part of Vengi and of the Chola empire.
2 “Kandalur-salai-kalam-aruttaruli” : This achievement claimed by Rajaraja I in his prasasti
is usually taken to be a naval victory of the Cholas over the Chera fleet.
But a new interpretation was offered by the late S. Desikavinayakam Pillai that it might
mean that “the scale of feeding in the feeding-house of Kandalur was regulated by the king.
(Kerala Society Papers, 2. pp. 100 ff).
Again, the late T.N. Subrahmanyan, after discussing the salai, an academy established at
I’arthivasekharapuram by Karunandadakkan, the Ay king of Venadu, concluded that Rajaraja I
“might have, in the course of his southern expedition, come into conflict with the members o t e
academy — a quasi-educational military' organization and must have used force in getting contro
over it”. This explanation is far-fetched as Tamil kings never interfered in the normal functioning
of local bodies except in cases of maladministration, defalcation or gross indiscipline.
Further, he examined the use of the expression in a Rajakesarivarman inscription at Koyil
Tevarayan-pettai (SII, XIII, no. 250) and advanced the view that this expression was used in the
sense of “having gained a victory by defeating the opponents.” (South Indian Temple Inscrip-
tions, III, Pt.II, 1-16).
But he himself admitted that the term kalam might have more than one meaning, and that
10
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
it might mean ship (note 4, p. 13), as is used in the prasasti of Rajendra I: “alai-kadal-naduvil-
pala-kalam-selutti" .
This exploit at Kandalur-salai is claimed by a few later Chola kings also; Rajendra I (ARE
363 of 1917), Rajadhiraja I (SII, III, p. 56) and Kulottunga I. The Kalingattupparani sung by his
Court poet on Kulottunga I, eulogises the king thus: “Was it not with his navy that Vilijnam on
the sea was destroyed and Salai captured?” (Stanza 378).
Again verse 91 of Kulottunga-Solan-Pillait-Tamil, a poem on Kulottunga II, describes that the
hero with his army destroyed the fort of Vilijnam (on the west coast) and obtained the entire
proceeds of the pearl-oysters at the Salai of Poraiyan (The Cheras) . The Salai of Poraiyan will
mean only Kandalur-Salai of the Cheras.
So, we will be justified in concluding that the expression ‘'Kandalurch-chalai-fCalam-arultaruli”
means the naval victory of Rajaraja I over the Chera fleet at Kandalur-Salai.
1 1
RAJARAJA I
Appendix on Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates
The Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates of the sixth year of Rajendra Chola I, speaking of Rajaraja I,
say :
69. Though requested by the subjects (to occupy the Chola throne), in order to destroy
the persistently blinding-darkness of the powerful Kali (age), Arunmolivarman, who under-
stood the essence of royal conduct, desired not the kingdom for himself even in (his) mind, while
his paternal uncle coveted his (i.e., Arumolivarman’s) dominions.
70. Applying (his) mind to (the devotion of) Sarva (Siva) utilising (his) wealth in the act
of performing His worship (employing) all (his) retinue in the construction of houses (i.e., temples)
for Him, and directing (his) subjects to (regularly) perform His festive processions, (showing
his) wrath (only) in the killing of enemies and (distributing his) riches among virtuous Brahma-
nas, that king (Madhurantaka) bore on (his) broad shoulders, the (weight of the) earth.
XXX
72. Arunmolivarman was himself then installed in the administration of the kingdom (as
if) to wash away the stain of the earth caused by the Kali (age) of his body (bathed by the water
during the ceremony of installation); and the ends of the quarters heavily roared with the tumul-
tuous sounds of the war-drums, rows of bells and bugles, kettle-drums, tambourines and conches.
73. (Surely) the milky ocean formed itself into a circle in the shape of (his) parasol in the
sky and came to see its (own) daughter Sri (Lakshmi) resting on the chest of this (king).
74. Indeed, the ladies of (the lords of) the quarters, who were taken captive during the
diguijaya (i. e., the conquest of the quarters), rendered (their) service to this victorious monarch
with chowries (made) of (his) fame, lustrous as the shining moon-beams.
75. Although, in the tulabhara (ceremony), the king was weighed against gold-pieces in the
scales {tula), he was still (found) a -tula (i.e., unequalled). (Hence,) it is difficult to comprehend
the greatness of the great.
76. This king — a pile of matchless prosperity, majesty, learning, strength of arm, prowess,
heroism and courage — invaded and conquered, in order, (all) the quarters commencing with
the direction of Trisanku (i.e., the south).
77. The moon as if to afford protection to the Pandya king born in his own family, and
thinking (unto himself) “I am also a raja (king), became the white parasol of this (king) who
was intent upon conquering that (southern) quarter.
78. (King) Amarabhujanga being seized, (other) dissolute kings, whose rule was secretly
mischievous, being much afraid of him at heart, wishes to hide (themselves) somewhere (just
like serpents with sliding crooked bodies).
79. The commandant of (this) ornament of the Solar race, the hereditary home of (the
Goddess of) victory, captured (the town of ) Vilinda whose moat was the sea, whose extensive
ramparts were glorious and high (and) which was impregnable to the enemy warriors.
80. The Lord of the Raghavas (i.e., Rama) constructing a bridge across the waters of the
ocean with (the assistance of) able monkey's, killed with great difficulty the king of Lanka (i.e.
Ravana) with sharp-edged arrows ; (but,) this terrible General of that (king) Arunmolivarman
crossed the ocean by ships and burnt the Lord of Lanka (Ceylon). Hence Rama is (surely) sur-
passed by this (Chola General).
81. This is strange that though Satyasraya fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i.e.
Arunmolivarman’s) ocean-like army, (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. But
this is not strange, that his flight is due to (i.e., is the result of) his birth from Taila.
82. “Since Rajaraja, an expert in war, of the (same) name as myself, has been killed by a
powerful club, I shall, therefore, kill that Andhra (king) called Bhima though (he may be)
faultless.” So saying, he (Arunmolivarman) killed him (i.e. Bhima) with a mace.
83. Having conquered the country (which w r as) the creation of Rama (i.e. Parasurama)
whose beloved vow was to annihilate the whole ot the Kshatra (Kshatriya) race the country
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
I 2
which was adorned with pious people, was matchless and inaccessible on account of the mountains
and the ocean, he caused abundant joy to all kings that held a bow (in their hands), (and made)
his commands shine on the rows of the diadems of all rulers of the earth.
84 Having subdued in battle the Ganga, Kalinga, Vanga, Magadha, Aratta, Odda, Sau-
rashtra, Ghalukya and other kings, and having received homage from them, the glorious Raja-
raja — a rising sun in opening the groups of lotuses, viz., the faces of crowds of learned men —
ruled the earth whose girdle is the water of all oceans.”
RAJARAJA I
Inscriptional References — General
13
1. Larger Leyden Grant (Rajaraja I and Rajendra I) ; Epigraphia Indica XXII, 34.
2. Tiruvalangadu Copper Plate Grant ; sixth year of Rajendra I ; SII, III, Pt. Ill, 205.
3. Karandai Tamil Sangam Copper Plate Grant ; eighth year of Rajendra I; Annual Report
on Indian Epigraphy 1949-50 ; Section A, 57 and 58.
4. Journal of Oriental Research ; XIX, Part II.
5. Kalidindi Grant of the Eastern Chalukya King Rajaraja I (Narendra) ; Epigraphia Indica
XXIX, Pt. Ill, 8.
6. Kanyakumari Stone Inscription of Vira Rajendra ; Epigraphia Indica XV and XVIII.
7. Tirumukkudai Stone Inscription of the fifth year of Vira Rajendra ; Epigraphia Indica
XXI, 38.
8. Charla Plates of the seventh year of Vira Rajendra — Saka 991 — a. d. 1069 ; Epigraphia
Indica XXV.
g. South Indian Inscriptions Vol. II, Pts. I to V.
10. Tirukkalar Plate of Rajendra Chola I, eighteenth regnal year ; SII, III, Pt. IV, 207.
It registers the extent of devadana lands belonging to the temple of Mahadevar at Tiruk-
kalar.
11. Tirukkalar Plate of Rajadhiraja I, thirty-first regnal year ; SII, III, Pt. IV, 208.
Tirukkalar is 16 kms south-east of Mannargudi, Tanjavur District.
The historical introduction states that the king took the head of Vira Pandya, Salai of the
Chera king and Ilangai (Sri Lanka).
2
Temples of Rajaraja I’s Time
TANJAVUR
x RAJARAJESVARAM
This great temple, the grandest of the Chola monuments, was
named Sri Rajarajesvaram, after its builder, Rajaraja I, as the
earliest inscriptions on its srivimana testify. We do not know
when exactly its construction began, but it might have been some
time in or before the nineteenth regnal year of the king. (The
title “Rajaraja” appears for the first time only in the records of
his nineteenth regnal year.)
The temple was built of stone which might have been
brought from a hillock called Mammalai, eight miles (13 kms)
from Tiruchirapalli and about thirty miles (48 kms) from
Tanjavur.
The first-to-be-engraved and most important inscription on
the walls of the temple (SII, II, 1) consists of 107 paragraphs;
the engraving was begun on an order of the king issued on the
20th day of his twenty-sixth regnal year, and the inscription
continues into the twenty-ninth (the last known) regnal year of
the king. The first fifty paragraphs describe— in chronological
order, with the solitary exception of para 18 referring to the
stupi (for the final consecration ceremony) being handed over
by the king on the 275th day of his twenty-fifth regnal year —
various gifts made by the king and others to the temple between
his twenty-fifth and twenty-ninth regnal years, while paras 51
i5
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
to 107 detail a miscellaneous collection of such gifts made between
the twenty-third and twenty-ninth regnal years. It appears that
in his twenty-ninth year, the king had a premonition of his
approaching end, and so he was anxious to have all the gifts made
so far placed on permanent record in stone on the walls of the
temple itself. The first paragraph contains the customary Sanskrit
historical introduction: “Etad visva-nrpa sreni mouli malopalalitam
sasanam Rajarajasya Rajakesarivarmanah ” and the Tamil one begin-
ning with “ Tirumagal pola” . The initial order for the recording
of the gifts was made by the king from the royal bathing hall
(1 tiru-manjana-salai ) lying to the east of the hall of Irumadi Cholan
in the palace at Tanjavur, and directs that the gifts made by
the king himself, his elder sister, his queens and other donors to
“the sacred stone temple ( tiruk-karrali ) called Sri Rajarajesvaram
which we have caused to be built at Tanjavur” be engraved on
the srivimana. Paragraphs 3-4 refer to gifts made in the twenty-fifth
year, 312th day; paras 5-9 in the twenty-sixth year, 14th day;
paras 10-16 in the twenty-sixth year, 27th day; para 17 in the
twenty-sixth year, 34th day; para 18 (breaking the chronological
order of the list, as mentioned above) in the twenty-fifth year,
275th day; paras 19-32 in the twenty -sixth year, 104th day;
para 33 in the twenty-sixth year, 318th day; paras 34-50 in the
twenty-sixth year, 319th day; and finally, paras 51-107 various
gifts made between the twenty-third and twenty-ninth regnal
years. Here again paras 51-54 refer to gifts made by the king,
partly from his treasury and partly out of the booty obtained
after his victory “over the Cheras and the Pandyas of Malai
nadu”; paras 55-91 list the gifts of the king after the conferment
on him of the titles of ‘Sivapada-sekhara’ and ‘Sri Rajaraja’ ;
and paras 92-107 list the gifts made after his victory over Satya-
sraya of the Western Chalukyas.
As stated earlier, we do not know when exactly the construc-
tion of the temple began. It must have attracted many gifts soon
after the start and during the adhivasa stage itself. It is clear from
para 18 of the inscription that the final consecration should have
taken place (with the installation of the stupi) on the 275th day
of the twenty-fifth year.
1 6 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The Temple Complex :
Rajarajesvaram may justly be called Devalaya-chakravarti * —
an Emperor among temples; among other reasons, it stands on
the highest point in the entire neighbourhood of Tanjavur, the
capital and citadel of the Chola empire and dominates the sky-
line for miles. Both in its simplicity and in its grandeur, it has
very few compeers.
The temple complex covers an overall area of the size of a
rectangle of 240.79 ms east to west and 121.92 ms north to south.
It consists of the srivimana, the ardhamandapa , the mahamandapa ,
the mukhamandapa and a Mandi-mandapa in front. There is a vast
courtyard with a circumscribing tiruch-churru-maligai (a columned,
raised, covered verandah), measuring 152.40 ms in length and
77.20 ms in breadth. Outside this wall, there are two further
walls of enclosure, the outer being a defensive one with bastions
and gun-holes. In the courtyard (or prakara), there are shrines
for Amman and Subrahmanyar, which are the major ones, and
a number of other smaller ones. A later mandapa in the north-
eastern corner of the courtyard and two gopurams in the eastern
perimeter walls complete the complex.
* The temple of Mahadeva at Ittagi, a small town in the Raichur Doab 22 miles (35 kms)
east of the railway station of Gadag on the South Central Railway, is a later Chalukyan
temple built by Mahadeva, the Dandanayaka of Vikramaditya VI ; he was a native ol Ittagi.
The temple came into existence in a . d . 1112. Close to it he also built a Vishnu temple called
that of Narayana, so named after his father.
The construction of these two temples is recorded 111 a Kanarese inscription found on a slab
planted in the verandah of the Vishnu temple. One of the verses of this inscription describes
the Mahadevesvara temple as the Devalaya Chakravarti , the Emperor among temples.
This Siva temple facing east consists of a shrine housing a Linga with an ante-chamber (a
parti) enclosed and partly open hall ) in front. It measures 120 feet (36.58 ms) by 60 feet (18.29 ms)
and has four storeys over the sanctum. The fourth storey is damaged and its finial is missing.
H. Cousens describes the temple thus : “This is one of the most complete and highly finished
of existing Chaluk)an temples - probably the finest temple in the Kanarese districts alter
Halebid.” This later Chalukyan temple (Vesara order ?) may be said to mark the transition
from the Later Chalukyan to the Hoysala type of temples.
The Siva temple at Ittagi is a century later than the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur built by
Rajaraja I, but the fine expression Devalaya Chakaravarli coined by the Kanarese poet can be
applied with greater justification (though anachronistically) to the Rajarajesvaram.
See Henr) Cousens; Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts : Text pp. 100-2, Elates
Cl to CVII).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
J 7
Walls of enclosure and gateways
The temple faces east. As one approaches the complex from
the east, a deep uneven moat of varying width and depth confronts
us; at the entrance to the temple, it has been filled up to provide
a passage on a level with the floor of the temple. After crossing
the moat, we come across the wall of fortification with bastions,
which runs all along the fringe of the moat. This wall is broken
by a gateway whose upper inner surface is semi-circular and top
flat, though somewhat raised from the general level of the
wall. An inner and more massive wall of enclosure runs all
round the four sides of the temple, parallel to the outer wall of
defence and removed about 6.10 ms from it. It is over the east-
ern opening on this wall that the outer (and first) gopuram rises.
This gate is called “ Keralantakan tiruvasal” (the sacred gate of
Keralantaka, a surname of Rajaraja I). It is a massive stone
structure ; the entablature is, however, unpretentious, the super-
structure being stocky and short. After crossing this gateway, we
traverse almost a hundred metres westwards before we reach
the inner gopuram known as “Rajarajan tiruvasal” , with attractive
panels on the adhishthanam, depicting pauranic and other themes.
This entrance admits us into the extensive courtyard in the
middle of which is located the main temple. This inner wall of
enclosure, the central structural complex and the subsidiary
shrines constitute the hard core of the temple. The wall of en-
closure is distinct in design from the outer walls of defence.
THE CENTRAL SHRINE
'This stupendous structure, comprising the garbhagriha, the
ardhamandapa , the mahamandapa and the mukhamandapa, extends
over an area of 54.86 ms by 30.18 ms and is set beautifully in the
walled and cloistered courtyard formed by the wall of enclosure.
The Srivimana
The crowning constituent of the entire edifice is of course
the srivimana itself, which rises to a grand height of 63.41 ms
from the floor of the inner courtyard. The garbhagriha measures
30.18 ms by 30. 18 ms at the base, according to the latest measure-
i8
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
ments taken by the Archaeological [Department; the figure
for the height of the srivimana has also been recalculated during
the recent cleaning operations undertaken by the Department
and the height from the floor of the courtyard to the top of the
stupi is 63.40 ms. The figure mentioned by Fergusson (and
others following him) was 57.91 ms. The kalasam (or stupi) measures,
not 3.66 ms as mentioned by earlier writers, but only 3.35 ms
(as measured during the recent cleaning operations). Possibly
the original measurement assessed on the basis of figures given
in the inscriptions could be inclusive of the portion of the stupi
which is inserted into the sikhara. The cella is double-storeyed,
each storey being indicated by a massive overhanging cornice;
the double-storeyed cella is a further development of the same
principle found in the Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur.
Sculptures on the Garbhagriha walls
The walls of the first tier of the garbhagriha are adorned with
a set of life-size sculptures of a variety of forms of Siva. There
are six sculptures on each wall except the eastern one, three on
either side of the central opening, which exposes the sculpture in
the vestibule. They include a pair of dvarapalas (on each of the
three walls) immediately flanking the central opening. On the
eastern wall there is however only one sculpture on each side of
the entrance to the garbhagriha ; on the south wall, an extra
figure has been accommodated, thus disturbing the symmetry.
These figures are given below :
South Wall West Wall
1. Bhikshatanar 1. Hariharar
2. Virabhadrar 2. Lingodbhavar
3. Dvarapala 3. Dvarapala
? 5
North Wall East Wall
1. Ardhanari- 1. Lingobha-
svarar var (South
side)
2. Gangadharar 2. Sivastand-
(without Uma) ing
3. Dvarapala 3. Pasupata-
murti (North
4. „ side)
4 -
4 -
4 -
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
If)
5. Dakshina- 5. Chandrasekh- 5. Pasupata-
murti (extra) arar (without murti (or
prabhavali ) Virabhadrar)
6. Kalantakar 6. Chandrasekh- 6. Siva-Alin-
arar (with ginamurti
prabhavali)
7. Nataraja
In addition to these sculptures, there are three on the southern
and three on the northern side of the mahamandapa. They are :
South side North side
1. Ganesa 1. Bhairavar (with urdhvajvala)
2. Vishnu with His Consorts 2. Mahishasuramardini
3. Gajalakshmi 3. Sarasvati
In the corresponding niches of the second tier above the
intervening cornice, Siva as Tripurantakar is repeated in different
poses, corresponding to the deities mentioned above. (Plates 1-34)
Over this base rises the towering structure of thirteen storeys
[talas). Topping the storeys of the srivimana is a single block of
granite 7.77 ms square estimated to weigh about eighty tons.
Over this block which forms the floor of the grim are Nandis in
pairs adorning the four corners, each Nandi measuring 1.98 ms
by 1.68 ms. It is on this granite slab that the griva, the sikhara
and the finial stand; the gilded stupi, which alone is said to be
about 3.81 ms in height, was gifted by the king himself to the
temple in his twenty-fifth year, 275th day (SII, II, 1, para 18).
Each storey is adorned with ornamental salas and kutas, combining
strength with grace. The gradual upward sweep of the srivimana
towards the sky is breath-taking; in this respect it outrivals the
Pallava shore temple at Mamallapuram and even the grand
srivimana attempted by his son at Gangaikondasolapuram. The
srivimana is pyramidal in form and not curvilinear as that of the
Gangaikondasolisvaram is. The 25-ton cupola-shaped sikhara and
the golden (no longer so) stupi give a fitting crown to an all-
stone edifice, which is a marvel of engineering skill unparalleled
by any structure anywhere in India built during that period.
20
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
It is the grandest achievement of the Indian craftsmen. That
this monument has so splendidly survived for about a millenium
now, in spite of the ravages of time, the political vicissitudes
and the utter misuse to which the temple campus was put during
the wars between the French and the English, is itself a tribute
to the skill and attainment of the Dravidian sthapati in building
a stone structure so solid, so perfect and of such magnitude.
The garbhagriha rests on a high-moulded upapitham and adhi-
shthanam. The upapitham measures 140 cms in height and the adhi-
shlhanam measures 360 cms; the entire basement thus measuring
500 cms. In the sanctum sanctorum is a monolithic Linga of giant
proportions rising to the full height of the two storeys of the
garbhagriha. There runs a corridor between the outer ( bahya -
bhitti) and the inner ( antara-bhitti ) walls of the garbhagriha ; in
this respect the temple resembles the Pallava Kailasanatha temple
at Kanchi. The inter-space is again two storeyed, corresponding
to the storeys of the garbhagriha ; in the lower storey, the vestibule
is adorned with three stone sculptures of exquisite workmanship.
Both faces of the walls of the vestibule are covered with mural
paintings of great artistic merit and co-eval with the monument,
with an overlaid layer of paintings of the seventeenth century
when the city served as the capital of the Nayakas of Tan-
javur and the temple received considerable attention from these
rulers.
In the corridor corresponding to the second storey of the
aditala ('of the vertical wall portion) of the srivimana, there is
a set of panels of stone sculptures in high relief depicting 81
karanas of Bharatanalyam, out of the total of 108; this would really
mark the first (known) plastic representation of these karanas
anywhere in India. Against the remaining unrepresented karanas,
there are mere blank blocks of stones. Labelled sculptures of
all the karanas prescribed in Bharata’s Natya Sastra are found
in the gopurams of the later Cholas — the Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram in the inner faces of the gateways and the
Sarangapani temple at Kumbhakonam on the upper tier.
There is a small seated Bhogasakti in bronze by the side of the
north jamb of the doorway of the garbhagriha.
TKMIM.KS OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 2 1
THE ARDHAMANDAPA AND THE SIDE GATEWAYS
An ardhamandapa is in front of the garbhagnka. It also served
as the bathing hall of the deity, as is seen from the snapana platform
(bathing dais) in the centre of the hall. The ardhamandapa is
approached from the sides as well as the front; the side gateways
are imposing. As the adhishthana of the temple is very high, the
floor of the garbhagriha and of the ardhamandapa is almost about
6.1 ms from the floor level of the outer courtyard and these two
gateways on the north and south walls of the ardhamandapa are
approached by imposing flights of steps, one on each side. The
steps are in two stages, the first flight being from the courtyard
level to the top of the apapitham; there is a small landing there,
followed by the second flight of steps reaching up to the threshold
of the gateway. Massive sinuous and ornamental balustrades
flank these flights. Both these gateways are flanked by huge
imposing dvarapalas carved in the true Rajaraja style. Over the
lintel of the southern gate is a brief inscription which reads:
“Svasti sri Vikrama solan tini-vasal” — the sacred gate of Vikrama
Chola, which was a surname of Rajendra I.* Wc will do well to
remember here that Rajendra I had been a co-ruler for two years
or more when the details of all grants and donations made to the
temple were ordered by Rajaraja I (who was still alive) to be
engraved on stone. One could presume the active participation
of the son in this sacred and unprecedented building venture ol
the father and the association of his name with the temple. There
is a reference to the existence of a gateway known as the Anukka
tiru-vasal, which has not been identified so far. If one keeps in
mind the close association of Rajendra I with Anukkiyar Paravai
Nangai (of Tiruvarur and Panayavaram fame), one could rea-
sonably presume that the northern gateway to the ardhamandapa
(opposite the Vikrama solan tiru-vasal ) was the Anukka tiru-vasal . t
* are 414 oi 1 9-24. This Vikrama Chola rcfcis not to the son of Kulottunga I, but to Rajendra I
(also see verse 113 of the Tiruvalangadu Plates).
f Since anukka means proximity, this gateway could also have been so named due to its close-
ness to the palace which lay to the north of the temple.
22
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
MAHAMANDAPA AND MUKHAMANDAPA
Further ahead of the ardhamandapa is the mahamandapa with
rows of six pillars both east to west and north to south. Bronzes
of Vitankar and the king Rajaraja I (both later substitutions)
are housed in this hall. Two giant dvarapalas guard the entrance
to this hall. The mukhamandapa is in front of the mahamandapa
and is approached by a sweeping flight of broad steps leading
up to the hall.
Dvarapalas
In all there are 18 dvarapalas in the temple, all massive and
grandly conceived in the Rajaraja style. Two are on the front
face of the first tier of the Rajarajan tiruvasal, two flank the entrance
to the mukhamandapa, two adorn the entrance to the ardhamandapa,
two are there, one on either side of each of the two entrances
to the ardhamandapa from the flanks; two are there on either side
of the entrance from the ardhamandapa to the garhhagriha and two
on either side of each of the openings in the south, west and north
walls of the garhhagriha.
Nandi Mandapa
In the same axis as the garhhagriha and the ardhamandapa is
the Nandi mandapa housing an enormous monolithic sculpture of
Nandi, worthy of the magnitude and grandeur of the temple and
the founder’s conception of it. It is 3.65 ms high, 5.94 ms long
and 2.59 ms broad and is estimated to weigh 25 tons.
Krishnan Raman Tiruch-churru-maligai
Reverting to the wall of enclosure surrounding this shrine
and its adjuncts, we learn from the inscriptions that at the behest
of the Lord Sri Rajaraja deva, his able minister and general,
by name Narakkan Krishnan Raman alias Mummadisola Brah-
mamarayan built this wall of enclosure (SII, II, 31, 33 and 45).
For convenience of reference, we may call it the Krishnan
Raman wall. It may be noted that the same general finds mention
twice in the Larger Leyden Grant. He was also the Chief Secre-
tary ( Olai-Nayakan) during the days of Rajaraja 1 and was called
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
23
Mummadisola Brahmamarayan after a surname of the king.
He evidently outlived Rajaraja I and served under his son and
successor Rajendra I, and during the latter’s days he went by the
name of Rajendrasola Brahmamarayan, in keeping with the
tradition in vogue then of adopting the ruler’s name.
In fact, the wall is part of a multi-pillared raised platform
running all along the four sides of the temple ; it rises to a height
of nearly 6.10 ms from the prakara floor level and is decorated with
stone Nandis mounted on the top of the wall at intervals; this
tiruch-churru-maligai has a large number of cellas interspersing
the open pillared verandah, most of them housing Lingas the
remaining being vacant; these cellas are not evenly spaced, nor
are they all of the same size; in fact they are in two sizes; one
group of them having a front wall relieved by four pilasters
corresponding to the pillars of the verandah while others (which
are fewer in number) have walls with six pilasters.
Dikpalas
The cellas in the four corners and the middle of the walls on
the south, west and north, are crowned with vimanas, consisting
of a griva, a sikhara and a stupi; thus we have seven such shrines.
In the cella in the north-eastern corner, Isanadeva is housed;
Nirutti is housed in the cella in the middle of the north wall,
Kubera in the north-western corner cella, while Varuna is in
the western cella ; the rest of the cellas are without any sculptures
at present but must have housed the remaining Ashta-dikpalas ;
this, as mentioned elsewhere, is confirmed by the references in
inscriptions on the eastern part of the wall of enclosure to the
shrines of Agni deva and Isana deva, which are said to be located
to the south and north of the Rajarajan tiru-vasal.
We have further confirmation of an unequivocal nature about
the setting up of eight shrines for the eight dikpalas from a record
of the third year of Rajendra I (SII, II, 20). This record lists the
gifts of kalasams (pinnacles) for the various shrines in the temple,
made by Guru Isana Siva Pandita, the Chief Priest of the Raja-
rajesvaram temple till the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I, for
being placed on the shrines (alavangalil ) .
MIDDLE (UIOLA TEMPLES
Even though the inscription is much damaged and we arc not
able to get the names of all the eight dikpalas , the mention of
a few of them confirms the installation of all the eight guardian
deities — viz-, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirutti, Varuna, Vayu, Soma
and Isana. The shrine of Indra, who is the regent of the east,
seems to have been located in the second (inner) gopuram itself,
for which five kalasams had apparently been provided by the king
himself. So only seven pots (pinnacles) are provided for the
remaining seven deities.
Ashta-Parivara-devatas
Besides these eight shrines for the eight dikpalas, there were
shrines for the eight parivara-devatas* ( ashta-parivara-devatas, viz-,
Surya, Saptamatrikas, Ganapati, Subrahmanyar, Jyeshtha
Devi, Chandra, Chandesvarar and Bhairavar), of which,
however, we have only vestiges left. In the cella on the
west wall, to the immediate north of the corner shrine,
is a massive Ganesa sculpture, which the inscription
describes as the Parivaralayattu Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar to distinguish
it from the Pillaiyar of the main temple ( Alayattu Pillaiyar) and
the numerous other icons of Pillaiyar in metal, dedicated to the
temple by pious personages of the royal household and nobles.
The original image of Ganapati set up in the days of Rajaraja I
in the parivara-alaya would appear to have been replaced at
some later point of time and the one we see now in the cella is
a substitute; the orginal, which is majestic and beautiful and is
of the same quality of stone as is used for the sculptures of the
original temple, is now found kept by the Archaeological Survey
in the southern verandah ( tiruch-churru-maligai ) of the temple,
where temporarily they have located their field office and spot-
museum. Of the Saptamatrika group of images, nothing is left
or seen, excepting the broken upper half of Varahi which is
* Ashlra-Parivara Dcvatas : K. V. Soundararajan ( Indian Temple Styles, p.33) gives the names
of the following deities : Subrahmanya, Surya, Chandra, Chandesa, Saptamatrikas, Jyeshtha,
Durga and Ganesa.
Durga is not an ashta-parivaradevata. At a later stage Fakshmi replaces Jyeshtha. For a discus-
sion see my Early Chola Temples f pp.327-329).
TEMPLES OF RAJ A RAJ A l’s TIME '25
now housed in a small modern brick and cement cubicle in an
inconspicuous portion of the courtyard near the well in the southern
prakara. The Bhairavar image, now placed loosely in the mukhaman-
dapa oh the temple, might be the original ashta-parivara-devata .
The Subrahmanyar idol is again not in its proper place, nor does
it appear to be the original one; it is in the north-western section
of the prakara and is housed in a structure of florid style built
by one of the Nayak kings in the seventeenth century a.d. The
only shrine standing as originally built is that of Chandesvarar,
which is north of and close to the srivimana ; it contains some
valuable inscriptions of Rajaraja I. None of the other shrines
can be traced now.
THE TEMPLE, A COMPOSITE PLAN:
Thus, the Rajarajan plan for the temple of Rajarajesvaram*
contained the central shrine with the ardhamandapa, the mahaman-
dapa and the mukhamandapa, the eight shrines for the parivara-
* On the name of the temple at Tanjavur, we have the authority of Rajataja I himselt, the
founder of the temple. In the foundation inscription, he refers to it thus :
“Pandyakulasani nattu Tanjavur kurrattu Tanjavur nam edppichcha tirukkarrali Sri Raja-
rajesvaram. . ” (SIT II, i).
The temple was Sri Rajarajesvaram m Tanjavur in the subdivision of Tanjavur in the district
of Pandyakulasani. The deity was referred to as Paramasvamin or Rajarajesvaram Udaiyar.
Karuvur Devar, a contemporary of Rajaraja I and his son, in his hymn called Tiruvisaippa has
sung of Rajarajesvaram and Gangaikondasolisvaram. Even during the Pandyan period when
the Amman temple was built in the courtyard of the main temple, the foundation inscription
refers to the Amman shrine in the following words,
"Tanjavur Udaiyar Sri Rajarajesvaram Udaiyar Koyihl. . nam elundarulivitta Ulagamuludum
mudaiya Nackchiyaarkku ...” (SI I, II, 61).
Even here the main temple is called Sri Rajarajesvaram and the Amman is named after the Pandyan
queen.
Nearly 600 years after the temple came into being, a certain Mallappa Nayakar refers to
the deity in the central shrine as Pcriya Udaiyar Nayanar , ‘the great Lord’, evidently in recogni-
tion of the size and greatness of the main deity. Tiru Pcruvudaiyar is a variant that has come
into vogue in the subsequent period, with Brihat-Isvarar as its Sanskrit equivalent. The Amman
has been given the corresponding Sanskrit name of Brihat Nayaki or Brihan-nayaki, which
means ‘the great lady’. But in none of the epigraphs in this temple or which refer to it do we
get these names. Therefore there does not scent to be anv justification for the name of Brihades-
varar for the deitv of the main shrine and Brihannayaki for the Amman of the temple of Raja-
rajesvaram at Tanjavur. It seems onlv fair to call this temple by the name its builder gave it.
On the same grounds there is no reason for the use of the term Brihadisvarar being applied
to the deity of the temple at Gangaikondasolapuram. Epigraphs give the temple the name of
Gangaikonda-solisvaram only.
26
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
devatas, the eight shrines for the dikpalas, the Krishnan Raman
Tiruch-churru-maligai with the Rajarajan Tiru-vasal and the imme-
diately outer wall of enclosure with the Keralantakan Tiru-vasal.
The walls of fortification with the bastions and the moat round
it find mention in the Tiruvisaippa of Karuvur Devar, the guru
of Rajaraja I. This work describes Tanjavur as “ Inji-sul-Tanjai ” —
Tanjavur surrounded by a moat. Hence these elements of the
periphery of the temple also are not likely to be later accretions
but part of the master plan of the grand temple as originally
conceived. This is the first instance of such defence works in any
South Indian temple. The Rajarajesvaram not only was a temple
meant for public worship but also served as the chapel-royal
for the use of the royal family whose palace was in its vicinity.
Hence perhaps the works of fortification.
The Rajarajesvaram temple was built completely with its
necessary adjuncts during the time of Rajaraja I himself, based
on a well-defined and stately plan which was preserved till
its completion (Tanjore District Gazetteer). The Chandesvarar
shrine which was very much a part of the original master plan
was built before his conquest of the 12,000 islands; the shrines
of Dakshinamurti, Subrahmanyar and the Amman however
are of different later dates. According to a Marathi inscription
dated in Saka 1732 ( A.D . 1801), Sarfoji Maharaja of the Tanjavur
Maratha dynasty executed certain elaborate repairs to the shrines
of Ganesa, Subrahmanyar, Ulagamulududaiya Nachchiyar
(Amman), Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti and Chandesvarar, built
one or two mandapas and renovated the prakara walls, the temple
kitchen and the flooring of the courtyard; all this was presumably-
necessitated by the ravages wrought on the temple complex
during the British occupation of the campus for over 30 years
(from A.D. 1772 to almost 1801-2). In fact, the temple became
out of bounds for the civilian population, and worship was
perhaps even abandoned, during this period.
On the Krishnan Raman wall, there are three entrances,
(two of which are now closed) giving one access from the outer
defence perimeter to the inner courtyard; they are directly
opposite the south, west and north walls of the garbhagriha;
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
27
the northern entrance was perhaps used solely by royalty, being
closest to the palace, which lay north of the temple complex.
SABHAPA TI-MANDAPA
The Sabhapati mandapa houses a beautiful bronze of Nataraja,
accompanied by His Consort, a gift made by Rajaraja himself
(PI 1). It lies further east of the Amman shrine.
AMMAN SHRINE
The Amman temple of Ulagamulududaiya Nachchiyar, now
called Brihannayaki temple, is a Pandyan foundation of the
thirteenth century; in the early and middle Chola period, there
were no separate Amman shrines attached to any temple; the
only Devi shrines known in this period are those of Durga (Drau-
pati ratha) at Mamallapuram, of Meenakshi at Madurai and of
KanyaKumari at Kanvakumari (inPandya country) and perhaps
the Kamakoti (Kamakshi) temple of Kanchipuram. In the early
Chola period, we have many instances of the installation in the
main shrine itself of metal images of Devi as Bhogesvari, Uma
Bhattaraki or Palliyarai-Nachchiyar as well as of the installation in
the srivimana niches of stone images of Durga, Lakshmi and Saras-
vati. One of the four inscriptions of Parantaka I found in the
Adityesvaram temple at Tiruverumbur refers to the consecration
of Uma Bhattarivar; this must refer to either the Bhogasakti
Amman or to the Palliyarai-Nachchiyar and not to any deity
with an independent shrine for it. The Mangalambika shrine at
Tirukkandiyur was originally a Siva temple, re-dedicated later
on as an Amman shrine; the Vada-Kailasam and the Ten-
Kailasam at Tiruvaivaru are actually Siva temples and not
Amman shrines, built in the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
respectively; the same pattern was followed in the case of the
Gangaikonda-cholapuram temple, where the Vada-Kailasam
and Ten-Kailasam temples were originally both dedicated
only to Siva; this is evident from the sculptures found on the
garbhagriha walls of these two temples; it was only later that the
Vada-Kailasam temple there was converted into an Amman
shrine (perhaps in the days of the Later Cholas).
MIDDI.b CiH>[,A THMt’l.liS
Another piece <>l evidence adduced in suppoit <>( the theory
that separate independent Amman shrines existed even in the
days of Rajendra I is taken to be the mention of the existence of
a Sri Bhattaraki icon, besides Durga and other sculptures, in
a list of icons enumerated in an inscription of the twenty-sixth
year of Rajendra I at Ennaviram (ARE 335 ot 1971; also vide
The Colas by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, 2nd edition, p. 715). There
is no separate Amman shrine at all of the age of Rajendra I at
Ennaviram. The earliest positive evidence that we have of the
construction of an independent, separate Amman shrine different
from the main shrine of Siva, is in respect of the Sivakami Amman
shrine, otherwise known as the temple of Tinikkamakkottam-
Udaiya Nachchiyar in the enlarged campus of the Nataraja temple
at Chidambaram; this temple for the Amman was built during
the period of the Later C.holas, viz-, Kulottunga I and his
successors. In fact, this is the earliest instance of its kind in the
whole of the Tamil country.
PARI VAR . 1 LAI A TTU FILL A 1 1 A R
From an inscription (quoted in SIR 11 , 3b, but not numbered
separately), partially covered, on the first pillar (counting from
the south-west corner) of the western tiruch-churru-maligai , it
appears that an image of Pillaivar Ganapatiyar, who is called
in the inscription Parivaralayattup-Pillaiyar (Pillaiyar ot the
parivara-alaya or sub-shrine) was set up by Rajaraja I before his
twenty-ninth year and that it was made of copper and measured
14 viral in height. Was it a processional image, made of copper?
From an inscription on a pillar of the same west wing (SIX,
II, 88), we gather that one Kanjan Kondaiyan, a native of
Kamadamangalam in Purakkillivur nadu, a subdivision of
Pandyakulasani valanadu, and a servant (pani-maganar) of
Rajaraja devar and the master (chief) of the rent roll in the
department ( Tinaikkalam ) of taxes levied from endowments
( Puravari-tinaikkalattu-varip-pottaga-nayakan) , presented a bell-metal
dish ( vengalal-laligai) weighing 29 palams to the Parivaralayattup-
Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar.
On a niche of the same west wing is another inscription (SI I ,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA fis TIME 2<)
II, 89) which refers to gifts to this Ganapati — “ikkanapati-
yarukku” ; the inscription being in the western enclosure, in
which the Parivaralayattup-Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar is located,
we may presume that the gifts relate to this Pillaiyar.
Mural Paintings in the Rajarajesvaram Temple
The sanctum sanctorum of the Rajarajesvaram temple as men-
tioned earlier, has a vestibule 1.88 ms (6 feet 2 inches) in width
between the two parallel walls of the garbhagriha. In the 30’s
of this century, some remarkable paintings were discovered on
the inter-facing walls of the vestibule by the late S.K. Govinda-
swami (See Journal of the Annamalai University , Vol. II, 1933; and
J.I.S.O.A., Vol. I, pp. 73-80). He however found on close scrutiny
that the entire wall surface was covered with paintings belonging
to the days of the Nayak rulers of Tanjavur and that in places
the painted surface had crumbled, exposing to view exquisite
paintings datable in the Chola period. Trying to preserve both
the Chola and the Nayak paintings, the Archaeological Survey
authorities have done a remarkable job of scientifically cleaning
up the exposed portions revealing the excellence of the Chola
paintings and at the same time retaining in tact the second layer
on which the Nayak paintings are drawn.
The vestibule consists of fifteen chambers made up of four
corner chambers, three central chambers and eight intervening
chambers, two to each side, l he space of the sixteenth chamber
is taken up by the entrance to the garbhagriha from the ardhaman-
dapa. On each side, the vestibule measures 17.07 ms 150 feet)
from end to end. The chambers are nominally separated from one
another by door-sills 0.46 m (a foot and a half) in thickness,
without, however, any intervening door. .All the chambers have
recesses which in the case ot tin* central ones are deep, and in
the case of the longer intervening chambers, shallow. The wall
surfaces of these recesses and in some cases those of the adjoining
jambs have provided the lithic canvas for the Chola paintings,
though not all of them have been made use of. For convenience,
the chambers have been numbered in the clockwise order as
seen in the Ground Plan. Presenting a grand view from the
30
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
prakara round the srivimana, through the central openings in the
outer wall of the garbhagriha, are three giant-size sculptures in
the central chambers, one each on the north, west and south
faces, with their backs to the inner wall. The one on the southern
side (in chamber no. 4) is of Jvarahara-Isvarar, with two arms
carrying a sword and a trident (?). This deity is generally covered
over with a thick layer of chandana kavacham (sandal-wood paste)
and local tradition has it that the deity has healing qualities.
The sculptures in the western central chamber (no. 8) is des-
cribed as Sadyojatamurti, wielding the gada, the tanka, the
sword and the sula in the arms to the proper right, while on the
proper left one arm is flung across the chest in the gajahasta
style, two others wield the noose and the shield, the fourth being
broken. On the proper left is an image of Parvati; on the proper
right is Vishnu playing the drum. The image is presently covered
with stucco; this was possibly done during the Nayak period.
We have an equally majestic sculpture of a female deity, in the
northern central chamber (no. 12) holding an akshamala in the
proper right and the lotus in the proper left arm. It could be a
representation of the concept of the integration of Parvati and
Lakshmi, but this requires to be examined further.
At present, not all the Chola paintings have been exposed,
but those exposed so far are found —
(i) on the north wall of chamber number 5,
(ii) on the east wall and jamb of chamber number 7,
(iii) on the east wall and jambs of chamber number 9,
(iv) on the inner jamb facing north in chamber number 10,
and
(v) on the south face of chamber number 1 1.
Chamber Mo. 5 : Dakshinamurti
The painting on the northern side of the chamber depicts
a forest scene. Various animals such as lions, tigers, deer, bears,
monkeys and reptiles like pythons are shown in their characteristic
attitudes and postures. A deer scratching its back-turned face with
its hind hoof, and a monkey perched on the top of a tree which
is densely foliated enliven the scene. The trees are outlined in
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 3 1
black, while the animals have been shown in brown (as in the
case of the bear) or yellow (as in the case of the dog). A very
natural green gives form and reality to the foliage in the forest.
At the lower end of the panel, we discern the bold outline of
an enormous figure, which could be identified with Siva as
Dakshinamurti seated on a tiger skin in a yogic posture complete
with the yogapatta. The outline is brown, the body is reddish
yellow and the jewellery is in red, blue and white tints. The
background is green. Besides, we have two other figures both in
brown outline, the body colours being light red and green,
respectively. A standing human figure perhaps represents a
hunter in his natural habitat and attire — a kachcham. The represent-
ation of Dakshinamurti in this forest scene seems to be a mural
replica of the metallic image Rajaraja I presented to the temple
before the twenty-ninth year of his reign (SII, II, 59), which
has been described in great detail in his grant.
A fine portrait of Rajaraja I and his guru Karuvur Devar
occupies the lower left-hand corner showing them in a mood ol
reverence before Dakshinamurti.
Chamber No. 7: Sundaramurti Nayanar episode
Certain major events in the life of Sundaramurti Nayanar,
so vividly depicted in literature as well as in sculpture, both
stone and metal, have been sequentially portrayed by allocating
a horizontal third of the painted surface to each episode, lhe
lowest layer depicts the marriage of Sundarar being prevented
from taking place by Siva in the garb of an old man; the middle
section shows Sundarar and Cheraman ascending to Kailasa,
and in the uppermost segment is depicted the effulgent scene
of Kailasa with the arrival of these two from the Earth.
(i) The marriage scene of Sundarar is characteiized by
realism and a deep insight into details; the cooking scene foi
instance is shown with great attention to minutiae; the cooking
oven, firewood and cauldron lend a down-to-eaith look to the
scene; the colour scheme is interesting. Siva in the guise of an
old man, fussing about his rights over the brahmana slave, who,
he contended, Sundarar was to him, is subtly brought out by
32
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
giving him an angry and aggressive look exuding self-confidence,
while Sundarar, with his marriage stalled, is delineated as a
frightened person in front of the irate old man, who is shown
producing a palm leaf, as a document to prove his contention
that Sundaramut'ti and his ancestors were the bond slaves of the
old man. The Chola craftsman has obviously got into the spirit
of the scene and has vividly brought out the utter consternation
in the faces of the persons who had come to attend the
wedding.
( ii ) The wedding stalled, Sundarar plunges into the service
of god and begins his pilgrimage to the temples of the south,
that ultimately ends at Tiruvanjaikkalam. There he ascends
to Heaven and attains oneness with God. His close associate, the
Chera king, Cheraman Perumal, hearing of this event hastens
to catch up with Sundarar, for fetching whom the divine elephant
Airavata was sent from Heaven. The middle portion of this painting
depicts the ascent of Sundarar and Cheraman to Kailasa. Sunda-
rar is riding the elephant Airavata, shown in dark brown outline
with white trappings outlined in red and its divine origin is
indicated by the trifurcated tusks (shad-danta) ; Cheraman is
shown riding a galloping horse, its outline being in dark brown
and the saddlery in white-in-red. A lighter vein is introduced
to the proceedings by the Court craftsman, when he shows a
figure clinging to the tail of the elephant in the hope of attaining
Heaven at least that way. A row ol musicians and divine dancers
accord ceremonial welcome to the ascetic and the royal guest
at the portals of Kailasa. In the northern segment of the wall
is a scene showing Cheraman worshipping Lord Siva in a temple
in Vanji, the then capital of the Cheras, presently called Tiru-
vanjikulam fCranganore) . The surfaces of the wings of the wall,
provided by the flanking jambs, have also been painted on in
delineating this fast-moving and time-spread theme.
(in) On the top third portion of the wall, the scene of Kailasa
is depicted symbolically with Siva and Parvati witnessing a
dance by two divine damsels; the scene is complete with the
presence of Nandi and the ganas ; there is a female figure, akin
to the tribal belle, standing at the extreme right reminiscent
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
33
of the forest scene, where there is an attired male, very much
like one of the hunting tribes.
Chamber No. 9: Rajaraja and his three Queens worshipping Lord
Nataraja
In this chamber the entire canvas is covered with a panel
showing the temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram, the four walls
running along the sides of the panel framing it as it were. We are
able to derive a clear idea of the gopurams on the four sides as
they should have existed in the days of Rajaraja I, i.e., before
the present ones came up during the days of the Later Cholas.
They are very much like the Rajarajan Tiru-vasal in Rajarajes-
varam, with a broad base and a small gopuram. They are found
on all the four sides. The wall of enclosure is simple and has no
tiruch-churru-maligai ; the Chit sabha is shown in magnified dimen-
sions to accommodate the figure of Nataraja which dominates the
scene; the dome is similar to what we see now; the Kanaka sabha
shown respectfully smaller, accommodates Rajaraja and his
three queens; what is noteworthy, among others, is the fine
handling of the drapery of the queens who are shown wearing
fine quality saris with lines and dots and decorative designs on
them. The legs are revealed through the fineness of the diaphanous
drapery. (See colour plates)
This panel is indeed a masterpiece of the Chola artist, who
was as versatile in handling the human form as in portraying
Nature in all her facets. The figure of dancing Nataraja (Adaval-
lan) is exquisite in workmanship and enormous in proportions,
comparable to the actual size of some of the man-size bronzes
of Nataraja cast in this period, with emphasis on poise and
balance. The dhatura flower is enchantingly natural, while the
cobra wriggles and dangles from the divine body in all its sinuous-
ness and colour; the outline of the shrine of Nataraja is possibly
a representation of the Chit sabha at Chidambaram as it existed
then.
The panel in the wall opposite to this also belongs to the
Chola period but is much damaged and worn out; however
rows of dancing figures are discernible, as also a miniature
34
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Nataraja (?). A little further up is Rajaraja with his guru Karu-
vur Devar.
Chamber No. io: Rajaraja I and Karuvur Devar
In this chamber, on the inner jamb facing north is a fine
representation of Rajaraja I and his guru Karuvur Devar. YVe
have already noted yet another panel where they are shown in
the forest scene in the fifth chamber.
Chamber No. 1 1 : Tripurantakar
On the southern surface of the inner wall facing north in
chamber no. 1 1 is perhaps the most graphic and dynamic of all
the paintings so far unveiled to us by the hand of man. Nothing
delighted the master artists of the Dravidian Court so much as
the concept of Siva as Tripurantakar; and the Chola painter
drew upon it and gave it a new dimension. The entire canvas
here is covered by the enormous figure of Tripurantakar riding
a chariot driven by Brahma and accompanied by Karttikeya
on his mount the peacock, Ganesa on his mouse and Kali on
her lion, with Nandi in front of the chariot. Tripurantakar is
shown standing in a fighting (alidha) posture on a pitham in a
two-tiered chariot, the two wheels of which are represented as
Surya and Chandra, and his eight arms are shown carrying the
traditional weapons, the bow and the shield among them; one
arm is swung across the body to the opposite side; one hand is
shown in the posture of taking an arrow from the quiver; there
is another quiver on the base of the chariot as a standby.
The anger in the eyes and the smile on the lips are brought
out very subtly and effectively; Siva is shown not as aiming the
arrow at the enemy but in the act of pulling out an arrow from
the quiver; the consternation among the asura ganas, who are
accompanied by their female companions, shown clinging to
them, is patent, and one of the frustrated among them is shown
lifting a boulder to throw at Siva; hatred and fear are both
brought out in the facial expression of this asura; Asura- guru
Sukracharya is shown in a posture of surrender and despair at
the right hand corner of the panel; lower down in the panel is
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
35
shown an asura carrying Siva (in the form of a linga) (?). This
painting is a masterpiece and perhaps the greatest among those
which have come down to us and have so far been exposed to
view in this temple; in its rhythm, composition and concept of
form and dimension, it has no equal in any contemporary painting
(or could one add sculpture too?). There is a confluence of emo-
tions and sentiments depicted in this panel, majesty and valour
etched in the face and form of Tripurantakar, piteousness and
utter despair in the faces and postures of the female demons;
wonder in those of the many gods and demi-gods, at the feat of
the Lord; and finally a portrayal of the unusual and the grotesque
in the shape and form of the ganas. It is no wonder, Rajaraja I
or his court painter chose this theme; was not the story of Tri-
purantakar the theme of Rajaraja’s life itself, of a great warrior,
a great benefactor, a king among kings?
On the opposite wall of the same chamber, we have scenes
showing Ravana shaking and trying to lift the Kailasa mountain ;
the ten-headed rakshasa is shown in a fine shade of green and the
attempt to lift the mountain is portrayed effectively by a neck
bent low and a face showing strain. Parvati is frightened and
clings to Siva from whose arms the snake has slid and fallen to
lie coiled on the ground. Lower in the same panel are shown the
devas and the ganas, some in fright and others in postures of trying
to dissipate the efforts of Ravana. The panel has not yet been
fully exposed and will turn out to be one of the best paintings
of the Tanjavur group.
Chamber No. 13
There are patches of Chola painting peeping out of the exposed
patches where the Nayak layer has peeled off; but the theme
cannot be clarified unless the superimposed Nayak painting is
removed.
The roof over the ground floor vestibule also has paintings
which require to be exposed; whatever is visible now relates to
a later period. Owing to years of neglect, rain water had seeped
through the crevices in the srivimana stones and so the topmost
foot or two of the panels have been virtually washed out and are
36
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
thus lost irretrievably. The sikhara is now being cleaned and the
gaps are being plugged and it is to be hoped that whatever of
the paintings are left will suffer no further damage. These are
perhaps the best set of paintings of the Chola period, in fact,
of South India of the Chola and Pandya periods, and should
therefore be preserved jealously. One wishes, judging by the
exquisite quality of the paintings, that some at least of the secular
buildings like the palaces at Tanjavur, Gangaikonda-cholapuram
and Palaiyaru could have come down to us, if for nothing else,
at least to give us an idea of the mature skill and versatility of the
Chola painters.* (Colour Plates i-io)
A Unique Monument
The Rajarajesvaram is unique in many respects. It has a
well-conceived unitary plan and its execution is perfect. Its
plinth — upapitham and adhishthanam — is high and strong and has
fine mouldings which give dignity and grandeur to the whole edi-
fice. Stones of excellent texture have been brought from a long
distance, and were properly dressed and raised by an artificial
inclined plane to the required height. It is a rare feat, considering
the limited technology of the age. With great engineering skill,
the downward thrust of the heavy stone superstructure has been
well distributed. The Linga is huge and it is housed in a double-
storeyed garbhagriha supporting the upper part of the srivimana.
All the members of the structure are well proportioned and there
is harmony in their assemblage. The steep upward sweep of the
srivimana, resembling Meru, with the needle-like stupi at the top
seems to point to the devotee the path to the lap of the Lord of
the Universe.®
♦In a very informative article written in 1937, S. Paramesvaran, the then Chemist of the
Government Museum at Madras, has dealt with the technical aspects of these paintings, the
plaster used for the base, the pigments, the binding medium, the method of execution and other
interesting details. (See Technical Studies , Harvard: V 4 (1937), pp. 222-239.)
@In the Authoi’s Preface to the book c The Story of Indian Art 3 , S. K. Bhattacharya (Atma
Ram & Sons) observes:
“ Indians were never an architectonic people : The Buddhist Chaitiyas, Jain and Hindu Temples
are all replete with the sculptural quality oi the builders. They never aspired towards the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
37
The calligraphy of the inscriptions on the walls of the temple
has reached a level of unparalleled excellence. So magnificent
and stupendous a structure has been completed in such a short
time, and built to last till eternity.
The vimana sculptures continue the sublimity of the earlier
Chola period. It is really the “Devalaya Ckakravarti” of Indian
temples.
The eleventh century was the grandest period of temple-
building activity in India. It was the age when India witnessed
the highest achievements in temple architecture. Among them
are those of Khajuraho built by the Chandelas between A.D.
950 and 1050, the most conspicuous of these being the Khandariya
Mahadeva— 33.22 ms (iog feet) long, 18.29 ms (60 feet) broad
and 35.51 ms (116 feet) high; and the Lingaraj of Bhubanesvar
in Orissa built about A.D. 1000, with a square base of side
15.55 ms ( 5 1 f eet ) an d a height of 38.10 ms (125 feet). About
this time some Hindu and Jain temples were also built at Osia in
Rajasthan, and again two Jain temples, in marble, at Mt. Abu.
Even among these, the Rajarajesvaram holds the pride of place.
ROYAL GIFTS OF ICONS TO RAJARAJESVARAM
After his extensive conquests in the four directions, Rajaraja I
became a “Lion among the Emperors” of that era and as if
to commemorate such an undying name in the history of this
country, he built a grand temple and showered all his wealth
and war-won booty on the construction and embellishment of
this temple and endowed it with stupendous wealth, as if to
ensure that for all time to come it would continue to be the
heaven like the Gothic Churches of Mediaeval Europe. They arc firmly based on earth, and
as such, they belong to our world rather than the world beyond”.
I wonder if this view is correct. The builders of Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur knew the basic
principles of planning and constructing buildings. This temple seems to belong both to this
world and the world beyond, with a happy blend of the allied twin arts of Architecture and
Sculpture. Indian Vastu and Silpa Sastras describe various kinds of temples with vimanas of many
talas (or bhumis) and multi-storeyed gopurams of which there exist, even today, many examples, and
the Rajarajesvaram is the grandest of them all (see Plates 32 and 42 of his book). On page 67,
he admits: ‘ The great sweep of the pyramidal vimana enclosed by niches gives it a monumental
vertical effect and speaks of the techtonic sense of Chola rulers ” and thus contradicts himself.
38
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
towering temple. The royal metal casters were busy casting some
of the most beautiful and incomparable metal images of all time,
and these icons were gifted and consecrated in the Rajarajes-
varam temple by him, his sister Kundavai, his queens and the
nobles and relatives; they also made extensive and sometimes
staggering endowments and gifts to these deities.
In this section, we shall list out all the metal images gifted to
the Rajarajesvaram by the above personages and in the subse-
quent section deal with their other gifts and grants. We have
records to establish that as many as 66 metal images were set
up in this period.
i. IMAGES SET UP BY RAJ ARAJ A I
(a) Gold, Silver and Panchaloha Images :
1. Adavallar*.
2. Uma Paramesvari, Consort of Adavallar.
3. Adavallar Dakshina Meru Vitankar.
4. Tanjai Vitankar.
5. Maha Meru Vitankar.
6. Kolhai-devar (gold).
7. Kshetrapalar (gold).
8. g, 10, 11. Vasudeva (silver).
Rajaraja I set up a number of giant-size icons, possibly of
panchaloha, which included Adavallar, Adavallar Dakshina Meru
Vitankar, Tanjai Vitankar and Maha Meru Vitankar. While
there is no description of these images in the lithic records that
have come down to us, references to Rajaraja I setting them up
are found in the records of grants made by Kundavai and others.
Besides, on the 312th day of his twenty-fifth year, Rajaraja I
*1) J. N. Banerjee : In ‘Hindu Iconography’ dealing with the anandct tandava form (p.280)
holds: “Numerous bronze replicas of the same type of dancing Siva are found in Southern India,
but most of them belong to the fourteenth or fifteenth century A.D. or even later.”
2) M. M. Deneck : In her Indian Art ‘Shiva Dancing’ mentions:
“Dravidian bronze:-
Height 154 cm (6ft. 1/2 inch).
including pedestal — twelfth to thirteenth century.”
My Survey will disprove the above conclusions.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
39
gave one gold image of Kolhai-devar, which was to be present
at the time of the sacred offerings ( sri bali), and it weighed
3 2 9 3/4 kalanjus and three manjadi , as weighed by the standard
stone called Adavallan. He also gifted a gold icon of Kshetrapalar
weighing 72! kalanjus. -
At least three and possibly four silver images of Vasudeva
with aureolae also in silver in three cases, were presented to the
temple. These are the only silver images gifted that we know of.
Of the Vasudeva images, whether with or without aureola, one
weighed 1043 kalanjus, while its aureola weighed 17J kalanjus
including ij kalanjus and 1 kunri of gold laid over its flame ( sudar ).
Yet another image weighed 355 kalanjus no mention being made
of its aureola. These images and aureolae together weighed
3162^ kalanjus. Perhaps, there was a fourth image of Vasudeva,
which finds mention as item no. 141 in the relevant inscription.
(b) Copper Images:
In addition to the images of the deities mentioned above,
he also set up a number of copper icons which are mentioned in
six inscriptions found in the temple (SII, II, 29, 30, 49, 50, 52
and 84) . All the dimensions of these icons were measured by the
standard unit of longitudinal measurement, viz-, the mulam (the
cubit), preserved in the temple of the Lord, and recorded.
They are:
1. Chandesvara Prasada Devar group (SII, II, 29) consisting
of :
(a) one solid* image of Chandesvara Prasada Devar,
with four hands and a jewelled padma-pitham,
(b) one solid image of Musalakan with two hands,
(c) one solid image of Uma Paramesvari with padma-
pitham,
(d) one pitham for the god and goddess together,
(e) one solid image of Mahadevar with one projecting arm,
* ‘Solid’ is used as the English equivalent of the Sanskrit word ghana (along with its Tamilized
version gana ), meaning ‘cast solid*, as opposed to ‘cast hollow’, the two processes of metal casting
followed by South Indian metal-casters ( sushira and ghana) (South Indian Bronzes : Lalit Kata
Akademi : C. Sivaramamurti, p. 14).
1°
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(f) one solid image of Chandesvarar, with two hands,
(g) one solid image of Chandesvarar ’s father, with two
hands and in the posture of lying on the ground,
(h) one solid image of Chandesvarar, with two hands,
represented as receiving Siva’s blessing,
(i) one flower-garland given to Chandesvarar, as a boon,
and
(j) one solid prabha.
2. Pancha-deha-murti (SII, II, 30) consisting of:
(a) one solid image with five bodies and ten arms,
(b) four solid images, joined to the main image, with
four hands corresponding to each of the four faces,
and
(c) one padma-pitham as pedestal to the image.
3. Subrahmanya Devar (SII, II, 49) consisting of:
(a) one solid image of Subrahmanya Devar, with four
hands,
(b) one bejewelled padmam,
(c) one pitham, and
(d) one solid prabha.
4. Dakshinamurti (SII, II, 50) consisting of:
(a) one solid image of Dakshinamurti with four hands,
seated on a mountain,
(b) a mountain serving as the seat of the above image,
with two peaks ( sikhara ),
(c) two solid images of kinnaras joined to these peaks and
having two hands each,
(d) two solid images of kinnaris with two hands,
(e) one solid image of Musalakan, with two arms and
lying under the Lord’s feet,
(j) two sets of two solid images of risk is with two hands
each,
(g) one solid image of a snake,
(h) two solid images of karna-pravratas (large-eared beings,
using the ears as cloak) having two hands each,
(i) one solid image of a tiger recumbent on the mountain,
(j) one solid image of a banyan tree ( ala-vrksha ) atop
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
41
the mountain, on which were ‘sewn’ nine separately
made large branches and forty-two minor branches,
(k) one wallet ( pokkanam ) suspended from the tree, and
(l) a solid handle ( kai ) and, joined to it, one bunch of
peacock’s feathers to be carried in it.
5. Mahavishnu (SI I, II, 52) consisting of:
(a) one solid image of Mahavishnu, with four hands,
(b) one bejewelled padmam,
(c) one pitham on which was mounted the padmam , and
(d) one solid prabha.
6. Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar (seven images) as follows:
(a) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar in the
dancing posture, with four divine arms with
(i) one lotus on which this image stood, set with
jewels,
( ii ) one pedestal on which this image stood, and
one solid aureola covering this image,
(b) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar in the
standing posture, with four divine arms with
(i) one lotus base, on which this image stood, set
with jewels,
(c) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar in the stand-
ing posture with four divine arms, with
(i) one lotus set with jewels forming part of this image,
(d) one solid image of Pillaiyar, comfortably seated with
four divine arms, with
(i) one shrub (sedi) forming part of this image,
(e) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar, in the danc-
ing posture with four divine arms, with
(i) one pedestal, and
(ii) one solid aureola, forming part of this image,
(f) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar, comfortably
seated with four divine arms, with
(i) one lotus forming part of this image, and
( ii ) one aureola covering this image, and
(g) one solid image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar, comfortably
seated with four divine arms, with
42
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(i) one lotus forming part of this image.
All these were copper images, set up (before his twenty-ninth
year) by Rajaraja I himself.
2. IMAGES SET UP BY KUNDAVAI
1. Uma Paramesvari, Consort of Dakshina Meru Vitankar.
2. Uma Paramesvari, Consort of Tanjai Vitankar.
3. Ponmaligai Tunjiva Devar.
4. Vanavan Mahadevi (Tammai).
We have already mentioned that Rajaraja I and Kundavai
were the children of Parantaka Sundara Chola II through his
queen Vanavan Mahadevi; hence Kundavai is known as Piran-
takan (rnagal) Kundavaiyar, that is, Kundavai, the daughter of
Parantakan. From paras 1 and 2 of inscription SII, II, 6, we gather
that Kundavai set up four images in metal; two of them were of
the Consorts of Dakshina Meru Vitankar and Tanjai Vitankar,
whose images were set up by her brother Rajaraja I; both the
Consorts were called Uma Paramesvari. The other two were of
her father and mother, viz-, Ponmaligai Tunjiya Devar (Sundara
Chola) and Vanavan Mahadevi, whom she merely describes as
“ Tammai ” (mother); the extent of her devotion to her parents is
shown by the unusual use of the expression tirumeni with reference
to the icons of her parents — tirumeni being used generally only to
refer to icons of gods, and the icons of human beings, other-
wise described as portrait sculptures, being generally termed
“ pratimai” .
3. IMAGES SET UP BY HIS QUEENS
Among the queens of Rajaraja I who find repeated mention
in the inscriptions of the period are Loga Mahadevi also known
as Danti Sakti Vitanki who was his principal queen, Panchavan
Mahadevi, Chola Mahadevi, Prithivi Mahadevi, Trailokya
Mahadevi, Abhimana Valli and Ilada Mahadevi. Each of them
took her legitimate share in the raising of the Rajarajesvaram
temple by casting metallic images and making gifts of ornaments
as well as provision for proper worship to them.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
43
(A) Logo. Mahadevi : the Chief Queen of Rajaraja I
i . Pichcha Devar
The chief among them, Loga Mahadevi alias Danti Sakti
Vitanki, is best remembered as the one who apart from making
her own contribution to the growth of art during this period
of great dynamism, built the Vada Kailasam at Tiruvaiyaru.
She performed the hiranya-garbha ceremony in the Siva temple
at Tiruvisalur; a portrait sculpture of the pair is etched on the
southern wall of the temple of Siva-yoga-natha-svamin there.
She also built a shrine for Kshetrapala devar in the temple of
Kapardisvarar at Tiruvalanjuli (ARE 633 of 1902).
Apart from these, she made extensive gifts to the Rajara-
jesvaram temple. She gave a copper image of Pichcha Devar
(Bhikshatana Devar) to this temple (SII, II, 9), some time be-
fore the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I. We get confirmation of
this donation from another record of the twenty-ninth year of
Rajaraja I (SII, II, 34) which mentions, inter alia , the setting up
of this image of Pichcha Devar before the twenty-ninth year of
Rajaraja I by Loga Mahadevi, the consort of “our lord Sri
Rajaraja Devar” and enumerates the gifts made by her of
ornaments and vessels of gold and silver.
This image is described as having four arms and standing
on a pair of (wooden) sandals ( tiru-adi-nilai ) with an attendant
deity, viz-, one solid goblin Ihhuta ) standing near this image and
holding a vessel for offerings (bali patra ), one solid antelope ( maan )
standing near this image, one pedestal ( upapitham ) on which
the image stood, set with jewels, and one solid aureola, encircl-
ing the deity, consisting of two pillars ( toranak-kal ) and the linking
crescent-shaped upper element (ardhachandra) .
(B) Queen Panchavan Mahadevi *
1. Tanjai-Alagar
2. Uma Paramesvari (Siva’s Consort)
*In SII, II, 51 and 53, Queen Panchavan Mahadeviyar is mentioned without aliases ; in
SII, II, 42 and 46, Queen Chola Mahadeviyar is mentioned, again without aliases. Panchavan
Mahadevi is stated to be the daughter of Avani-Kandarpa-Purattu-devanar of Paluvur in an
inscription of the twenty-seventh year of Rajaraja I at Melappaluvur (ARE 385 of 1924), and
44
MIDDLE CIIOLA TEMl’LES
3. Ganapati
4. Saint Patanjali
Panchavan Mahadcvi gave a gift consisting of one solid copper
image of Siva bearing the sacred name of Tanjai-Alagar having
four divine arms; Muyalakan lying recumbent at the sacred foot
on which the Lord stood ; one lotus on which this image stood,
set with jewels; one solid image of His Consort Uma Paramesvari
with a lotus on which this image stood, set with jewels; one
pedestal on which the Lord and His Consort stood ; and one solid
aureola encircling the two deities, consisting of two ornamented
pillars and the ardhachandra upper element connecting the two
(SII, II, 51). Besides, her gifts included one solid Ganapati in
a standing pose having four divine arms, and the lotus on which
he stood, set with jewels, one pedestal and one solid aureola fram-
ing the icon. The same queen also gave (SII, II, 53), before the
twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I, one solid image of the saint
Patanjali devar shown with a human body above the navel and
three serpentine coils below the navel; the five-headed serpent
hood formed an umbrella over the head of the icon; he had a
crown ( makuta ) and two arms; also there was a lotus seat ( padma
asana ), set with jewels, on which he sat and one solid aureola
covering this image; besides, she endowed this image with
innumerable gifts of gold flowers, sacred ear-rings, arm-bands
and so forth.
(C) Queen Chola Mahadevi
1. Adavallar and
2. Uma Paramesvari
3. Rishabhavahana Devar and
4. His Consort
Chola Mahadevi as the daughter of 1 ittaipiran, in an inscription of the twenty-third year of
Rajaraja I at Tiruvallam (ARE, 223 of 1921). However, an inscription of the 3rd year of Raja-
raja I at Tirumaipuram (ARE, 294 of 1906) makes reference to “Chola Madeviyar alias Pancha-
van Madeviyar, Queen of Mummudi Chola’’. It is thus not clear whether these two names
refer to one and the same queen; since the inscriptions list the gifts to the Rajarajesvaram
under the two names separately, wc have also listed them likewise.
(An inscription of the sixteenth year of Rajaraja I at Tiruppugalur (ARE 47 of x 928) refers
to “Nakkan Tillai Alagiyar alias Panchavan Mahadeviyar, Queen of Rajaraja I”).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
45
5. Ganapati
Chola Mahadevi, one of the principal queens of Rajaraja I
gave, before his twenty-ninth year, a gift of one solid image of
Adavallar, having four divine arms, with the image of Ganga-
bhattaraki on the braided hair, nine braids of hair (jata) and
seven flower garlands in between ( poo-malai ), along with an
image of Muyalakan lying at the feet of the Lord ; one lotus on
which this image stood set with jewels, one pedestal, one solid
aureola, one solid image of His Consort Uma Paramesvari with
a lotus on which her image stood, set with jewels; one pedestal
on which this stood ; and one solid aureola ; to these two images
of Adavallar and Uma Paramesvari, she made innumerable gifts
consisting of a string of round beads, a spiral with stones, strings
with pearls and many others (SII, II, 42).
Chola Mahadevi also set up in the temple the following
other copper images; one solid image of Rishabhavahana Devar
having four divine arms, one lotus on which this image stood,
set with jewels, one solid image of His Consort Uma Parames-
vari, one lotus on which this image stood, one bull ( rishabha )
partially solid and partially hollow, one pedestal on which the
God, His Consort and the bull stood, one solid aureola encircl-
ing all three and consisting of two ornamented pillars and one
ardhachandra linking the two; one solid image of Ganapati, one
lotus on which this image stood, set with jewels, one pedestal
and one solid aureola to cover this image. To these images she
made extensive gifts enumerated in the inscription (SII, II, 46).
(D) Queen Prithivi Mahadevi
1 . Srikanthamurti and Parvati
Prithivi Mahadevi, one of the queens of Rajaraja I presented
an image of Srikanthamurti to the Rajarajesvaram temple
before the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I. This image represents
Siva swallowing the poison halahala, but holding it in his throat,
thus acquiring the name of Nilakantha (the blue-throated) ; the
Karanagama gives the inconographic characteristics of Siva in
this form as having one face, three eyes, braided hair, and four
arms with the upper holding the antelope and the axe, while
4 6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the poison is held in a cup in the right lower hand. Left of the
image is the icon of Parvati shown with two arms. Inscription
SII, II, 82 gives details of the gifts of ornaments, vessels etc.
given to this image and the Consort.
(E) Queen Trailokya Mahadevi
1. Kalyanasundarar and Uma Paramesvari, with Vishnu
and Brahma.
Before the twenty-ninth year of Rajarajal,his queen Trailokya
Mahadevi set up copper images of Siva under the name of
Kalyanasundarar, of his Consort Uma Paramesvari and of
Vishnu and Brahma represented as worshipping the main image.
We gather that these were set up by her, from an inscription of
the tenth year of Rajendra Choladeva (SII, II, 11). Here is a
description of the deities: one solid image of Kalyanasundarar
having four divine arms with one lotus on which this image
stood, set with jewels; one pedestal on which the God and His
Consort stood, one solid aureola covering the God and
His Consort consisting of two pillars and one crescent-shaped link
between them; one solid image of standing Vishnu, having four
arms and in the act of pouring out water; one lotus on which
this image stood, set with jewels; one four-legged pedestal; one
solid image of Brahma represented as offering oblation ( huta ),
having four arms and four faces, comfortably seated on a pedestal
joined to a lotus, set with jewels. To these images she made
extensive gifts of jewels and vessels (the details of which are con-
tained in the inscription referred to above) which included strings
of beads, sacred ear-rings, arm-rings, foot-rings, spirals and others
(SII, II, 48).
( F ) Queen Abhimanavalli
1. Lingapurana Devar (Lingodbhavar)
Before the twenty-ninth year of the reign of Rajaraja I, his
queen Abhimanavalli set up a copper image of Lingapurana Devar.
It consisted of the following: One image of Lingapurana Devar
in the shape of a Linga with one solid image of Siva represented
as rising out of this image, having four divine arms, one solid
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
47
image of Brahma, having four divine arms, joined to the Linga ;
and one solid image of Vishnu with the head of a boar ( varaha -
mukha) and having four divine arms joined to the Linga. This
image was presented with a necklace, strung with four hundred
and thirty pearls in clusters, and one necklace strung with
eight hundred and eighty seven pearls in clusters (SII, II, 44).
(G) Queen llada Mahadevi
1. Pasupatamurti
While we have no exclusive inscription dedicated to the
setting up of any images by this queen, there is a reference in an
inscription dealing with the donation of sheep, cows and buffaloes
for the maintenance oflamps in the temple (SII, II, 95, para 56),
to the setting up of an image of Pasupatamurti by this queen
who presented cows and she-buffaloes for the purpose of burning
lamps to this image. In all probability, her gift of this is recorded
in some inscription in the inner enclosure of the temple which
is still buried underground.
4. ICONS SET UP BT RAJARAJA PS OFFICERS AND
OTHERS
(A) Krishnan Raman
(1) Ardhanarisvarar
One of the important officers and generals of Rajaraja I
was Narakkan Sri Krishnan Raman alias Senapati (general)
Mummadi-Chola-Brahmamarayan, a perundanam of Lord Sri
Rajaraja devar and a citizen of Keralantaka chaturvedimanga-
lam in Vennadu, a subdivision of Uyyakkonda valanadu. It was
he who constructed the innermost wall of enclosure round the
Raj araj es vara m temple, as is evidenced by three inscriptions
on its southern and western wings. Inscription SII, II, 39 gives
the details of the metal image of Ardhanarisvarar set up by him
in this temple before the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I : one
solid image of Ardhanarisvarar; one lotus on which this image
stood, set with jewels; one pedestal on which this image stood;
one solid aureola covering the image. The deity was half-male,
48
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
half-female, and the Siva ( Isvara ) half had two divine arms and
and the Uma (. Isvari ) half had one divine arm. It was made of
copper and covered with brass.
(B) Adittan Suryan
1. Nambi Aruranar 7. Devaradevar
2. Nangai Paravaiyar 8. Miladudaiyar
3. Tirunavukkaraiyar 9. Kshetrapalar
4. Tirujnana Sambandar 10. Bhairavar
5. Periya Perumal (Rajaraja I) 11. Siruttonda Nambi
6. Loga Mahadevi, his consort 12. Tiruvenkattu Nangai
13. Siraladevar
Perhaps the most significant of all the metals donated by
any of Rajaraja I’s ministers and officers were those by Adittan
Suryan, alias Tennavan Muvendavelan, the headman of Poygai
nadu, who carried on the management of Rajarajesvaram (SII,
II, 38). He set up, before the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I,
the following images :
(a) One solid image ( pratimam ) of Nambi Aruranar (Sundarar)
having two sacred arms, one lotus on which this image stood,
one pedestal on which the lotus was placed;
(b) one solid image of Nangai Paravaiyar, having two sacred
arms, one lotus on which this image stood, one pedestal joined
to this lotus;
(c) one solid image of Tirunavukkaraiyar having two sacred
arms, one lotus on which this image stood, one pedestal joined
to this lotus;
(d) one solid image or Tirujnana Sambandar having two
sacred arms, one lotus on which this image stood, one pedestal
joined to this lotus;
(e) one solid image of Periya Perumal (Rajaraja I) having
two sacred arms, one lotus on which this image stood, one pedestal
joined to this lotus;
(f) one solid image of his consort Ologamadeviyar (Loga
Mahadevi) having two sacred arms, one lotus on which this image
stood, one pedestal joined to this lotus;
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
49
(g) one sacred image ( tirumeni ) in solid brass of Chandra-
sekhara devar set up as Devaradevar* for Periya Perumal ( Periya
Perumalukku Devara-devaraga elundarulivitta . . . tirumeni) having four
divine arms ; one brass pedestal bearing a lotus, which was joined
to this image; one solid aureola of copper covering this image;
(h) one solid image of Miladudaiyar, who said: “Oh, Tatta,
watch out; (he is) one of us (one of the devotees of Siva)”, having
two arms; one pedestal on which this image stood joined to a
lotus (SII, II, 40). According to the sixth chapter of the Periya-
puranam, one Meypporul Nayanar, a Chedi (?) king residing at
Tirukkovalur, was stabbed by his enemy Muttanadan who had
managed to obtain a private interview in the disguise of a Saiva
devotee; the door-keeper who was about to kill the assailant
was prevented from doing so by the dying king who exclaimed:
‘Oh Tatta, he is a devotee of Siva; therefore do not harm him’;
and Meypporul Nayanar is also called Miladudaiyar (the lord
of Miladu) .
Adittan Suryan also gave the following tirumenis and pratimas
of copper until the third year of the king Rajendra I :
(1) One solid image of Kshetrapala devar having eight
divine arms;
(2) One solid image of Siva in his fierce form of Bhairavar,
represented as dancing, having two divine arms, and one pedestal
on which this image stood, joined to a lotus;
(3) One solid image of Siruttonda Nambi, having two arms;
(4) One solid image of Tiruvenkattu Nangai;
(5) One solid image of Siraladevar, having two arms; and
one pedestal on which the three images (i.e. 3, 4 and 5) stood,
joined to a lotus (SII, II, 43, which deals with the gifts of
tirumenis and pratimas made by the same chief, Adittan Suryan) .
(C) Velan Adittan
1. Siva and Uma
2. Subrahmanyar
3. Ganapati
* Devaradevar means the deity before whom the Devaram was recited (by the king, in this
instance).
50
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Another royal officer named Velan Adittan alias Parantaka
Pallavaraiyan, a headman ( kilan ) of ... and a perundaram of
Lord Sri Rajarajadevar, set up a copper image of Siva and Uma
before the twenty-ninth year of the king. The gift consisted of
one solid image of Siva having four divine arms in the sukhasana
posture; one solid image of his Consort Uma Paramesvari, seated;
one solid image of the god Subrahmanyar having two divine
arms, standing; and one solid image of Ganapati having four
divine arms (SII, II, 32).
(D) Rajaraja Muvendavelar
1. Kratarjuniya Devar
Another important officer of the royal court of Rajaraja I
was the Minister Udaya Divakaran Tillaiyaliyar alias Rajaraja
Muvendavelar, a native of Kanchivayil. He set up the image
of Kratarjuniya Devar (Kiratarjuniya Devar) in the Rajarajes-
varam temple and deposited thirteen kasus of money for the
sacred food and other requirements of the deity (SII, II, 9).
(E) Kovan Annamalai
1. Bhringisar
2. Surya Devar
Yet another prominent royal officer is Kovan (i.e. Gopan)
Annamalai alias Keralantaka Vilupparaiyan, a perundaram of the
minor treasury (, sirudanam ) who made a gift of the following : one
solid image of Bhringisar, with three divine feet and three divine
arms and bearing a bush ( sedi ), and one pedestal on which this
image stood, set with jewels (SII, II, 47).
The same officer set up a copper image of the Sun god, Surya
Devar, before the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I and presented
some ornaments to this image. The gift consists of one solid image
of Surya Devar having two divine arms, one lotus on which this
image stood, set with jewels, one pedestal [bhadra-udaiya pitham ) and
one solid aureola.
(F) Mummadisola Posan
1 . Chandesvara Devar
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 5 1
We have another officer of Rajaraja I’s court, Irayiravan
Pallavayan alias Mummadisola Posan, who set up an image in
copper of Ghandesvara Devar before the twenty-ninth year of
Rajaraja I and presented certain ornaments (SII, II, 55). Pallava-
yan was a perundanam of Rajarajadevar and the gifts made are:
one solid image of Chandesvara Devar, having two divine arms,
one lotus on which this image stood, set with jewels, one pedestal
[bhadra-udaiya pitham), one solid aureola and one solid axe (main)
held by this image. This Chandesvara Devar is, of course, different
from the Chandesvara Prasada Devar presented by Rajaraja I
which has been mentioned earlier under the gifts of images
made by the king himself (SII, II, 29).
(G) Vadugan
1 . Durga Paramesvari
One Vadugan, a native of Nallur alias Panchavan Mahadevi
chaturvedimangalam, made a gift of a copper image of Durga
Paramesvari, which was set up in the temple of Rajarajesvaram
before the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I, and also endowed
it with a number of ornaments and jewels. This image ( tirumeni )
of Durga Paramesvari was of solid metal and had four hands;
it stood on padma and bhadra pithams with a prabha over it; the
aureola was also made of solid metal (SII, II, 79).
(H) Rajaraja Kattiyarayan
1 . Kala Pidari
Finally, Perundanam Kandayan alias Rajaraja Kattiyarai-
yan, son of Kattiyarayan, made a gift before the twenty-ninth
year of Rajaraja I to the Rajarajesvaram temple, of a solid image
of Kala Pidari having four arms, along with one pedestal and
one solid aureola (SII, II, 81).
(I) Guru I sana Pandita
1 . A pratima of the Guru
Guru Isana Siva Pandita is often mentioned in the records
of this temple and was one of the important Saiva acharyas charged
with the spiritual administration of the temple; apart from the
0
0 009
R/
52
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
money deposits made by him for various services in the temple,
he also set up an image (pratima) of himself in the temple. “To
the shepherd Nallaran Villanai of Mangalam were assigned 32
kasus out of the money deposited by the priest ( gurukkal ) Isana
Siva Pandita for a lamp to the image of the gurukkal set up in the
temple” (SII, II, 95, para 82).
One may conclude, reading inscriptions 96, 20 and 90
together, that Sivacharya Isana Siva Pandita continued to be the
chief priest of the temple till the second or even the third year of
Rajendra I when he was succeeded by Sivacharya Pavana
Pidaran. We learn from inscription no. 90 that the latter presented
a pot ( kalasa ) in the third year of Rajendra Chola for one of
the subshrines in the temple. He, in turn, was succeeded by
Saivacharya Sarva Siva Pandita, as attested by a nineteenth
year record of Rajendra (SII, II, 20), according to which Rajendra
ordered, inter alia, while camping in the college (kalluri) which
surrounds the king’s flower garden ( aram ) on the north side of
the royal hall (tiru maligai) of Mudikonda solan within the palace
(1 koyil ) at Gangaikondasolapuram, that two thousand kalams of
paddy fully measured by the ynarakkal called Adavallan preserved
in the temple should be supplied every year, as long as the sun
and the moon last, to the treasury in the city, to be enjoyed by
the priests ( acharya ) of the temple of the lord of Sri Rajarajesvarar,
viz-, our Lord the Saivacharya Sarva Pandita and by those who
deserve it among the pupils ( sishya ) of this Lord and the pupils
of his pupils ( prasishya ). The above order was written (engraved
on stone), as heard from the lips of the king. “May the Sivacharyas
of this spiritual line protect this charity ( dharma )” ends the order.
The deification of this guru is indicative of the high esteem in
which the rulers held the spiritual leaders of this line.
ICONS: GENERAL:
The age of Sembiyan Mahadevi and Rajaraja I was one
when artistic “works of individual creative power” were made
by artists “who were trained in a guild tradition of imparted
knowledge and followed a system of canonical proportion and
technique, relying on inspiration through meditation; and yet,
TEMPLES OK RAJARAJA I’s TIME
53
inevitably, their productions combine system and freedom, dream
and reality to produce at once works of individual genius and
awesome religious power” — these are the wise words of an out-
standing art critic, Benjamin Rowland, who believed in the
traditional school of art.
The icons are elaborately described. The name of the main
deity and the attendant deities, where any, the composition
of the metal — whether copper, brass-coated, silver, gold or alloy
(bronze or bell-metal) was used for their making, the height and
and weight of each unit, the number of hands and the attributes
in each of them, the seat ( asana or pitha) and the aureola, if they
were solid or hollow, their shape and composition — all these parti-
culars furnished in the foundation inscriptions are unique and
unparalleled in the history of any ruler in our land or elsewhere.
The loss of most of these icons, the gold and to a lesser extent
the silver vessels for their services during worship, the fabulous
ornaments of gold and precious stones, corals and pearls of
fantastic numbers, variety and value so elaborately described,
is a sad tale of a vanished glory whose shadow alone we can now
see and read from the mute records inscribed on the temple
walls and whose purport and value has been made available to
us in the pages of the Epigraphical Reports, thanks to the in-
defatigable labours and the mature scholarship of one of the
greatest epigraphists of our period, E. Hultzsch and his able
band of fellow workers.
If there is no autobiography or biography of our rulers as in
the case of the Moghul emperors, and no accounts of contemporary
foreign visitors as we have of Nuniz and Paes for Krishnadeva
Raya of Vijayanagara, we have at least some copper plate grants
and the innumerable inscriptions on the walls of temples, an
invaluable source material to help us recapture, however, feebly
it be, the glory that was Rajaraja I and the grandeur that was
the Rajarajesvaram.
GIFTS — OTHER THAN ICONS — AND DONATIONS
(A) Rajaraja I
There are perhaps few lithic records in recorded history so
54
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
fascinating as the one found in nine sections engraved on the
north wall and four sections on the west wall of the central shrine,
which the inscription itself terms as Rajaraja’s edict. It opens
with a Sanskrit sloka followed by the Tamil part. After listing
out his conquests, it goes on to mention the date after which this
and all the other grants relating to this temple were incised on
the walls and pillars of the temple. On the twentieth day of the
twenty-sixth year of his reign, Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias
Rajarajadeva ordered that the gifts made by himself, his elder
sister Kundavaiyar, his queens, and other donors should be
engraved on the stone walls of the temple. It is in fact from this
inscription that we get to know that Rajaraja himself built this
temple and called it the temple of the Isvara of Rajaraja. Then
it mentions a list of gold images, gold vessels and ornaments
studded with precious stones which the king himself presented
to the temple and to the image of Dakshina Meru Vitankar, on
various dates, the earliest date being in his twenty-third year
and the last being on his twenty-ninth year. We gather that part
of the gifts which the king made between his twenty-third and
twenty-ninth years were taken from the treasures which he
seized after defeating the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai
Nadu ; after he assumed the titles of Sivapadasekhara and
Rajaraja, he made a gift of a number of gold trumpets and after
his triumphant return from the victory over Satyasraya, the
Western Chalukya king, he made a gift of a number of gold
flowers. In calligraphy, historical content and the fascinating
details of jewellery and ornaments listed out in it, this record
stands out as a gem of epigraphy (SII, II, i).
The gifts made by Rajaraja I may be divided into three
categories : (i) metal images of deities, (ii) gold ornaments and
vessels, and (Hi) jewellery.
We have dealt with the gifts of icons in the earlier sections.
Besides those, he made a gift of ornaments and vessels number-
ing thirty-two and weighing 22,257 kalanjus.
From the bhandar am (treasures) captured by him after defeating
the Chera king (Seraman) and the Pandyas in Malai Nadu,
Rajaraja I gave on the 319th day of his twenty-sixth year to the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
55
Paramasvamin (the Supreme Lord) of the Sri Rajaraja-Isvaram
temple, a number of gold chinhas (emblems) which were weighed
by the stone called Adavallan and details of these gifts were
engraved on stone.
These two groups of gifts, which total 22,256 and 5,705
kalanjus respectively, relate to those given to the Lord of Raja-
rajesvaram in the twenty- fifth and twenty-sixth years, the latter
being from the treasures which he seized after having defeated the
Chera king. These are enumerated in the first part of the inscrip-
tion.
In the second part, there is specific mention that it confines
itself only to those gifts given from the twenty-third to the twenty-
ninth years of his reign, excluding those gifts of the twenty-
fifth and twenty-sixth years which had already been engraved
on the adjacent stones, ahead of this part of the inscription, on
the east of the upper tier ( jagatippadai ) . The gifts listed here can
again be divided into three parts, (i) those given out of the treas-
ures secured after the defeat of the Cheras, valued at 67 kalanjus
of gold, (it) those offered after he was bestowed the illustrious
titles of Sivapadasekhara (he whose forehead is always at the
feet of Siva) and Sri Rajaraja (the illustrious king of kings),
valued at 2,937 kalanjus of gold, (Hi) gifts made from his own
treasures, amounting to 2075 kalanjus, (iv) gifts given to the Lord
after he returned from his victory over Satyasraya, which he
showered as flowers at the sacred feet (sri pada pushpa) of the
God by way of thanksgiving (with the flowers of gold, listed
in the inscription) amounting to 264 kalanjus, and ( v ) one more
category of gifts given not to the Lord of the Rajarajesvaram but
to the processional deity, known by the name of Dakshina Meru
Vitankar, also set up by Rajaraja.
And finally apart from those given out of his own treasure,
he gave one diadem ( tiruppattam ) made of gold taken from the
treasures which he seized after having defeated the Chera king
and the Pandyas in Malai Nadu, weighing 98 if kalanjus ( sera -
manaiyum pandiyanaiyum malai nattu erindu konda bhandarangalil pon
kondu seydu kudutta tiruppattam onru pon ...).
And to all these, we should add the gold element of the kalasam
f)(» MIDDLE CHOI .A TEMPLES
for the great temple, that he made over on the 275th day of his
twenty-sixth year, which consisted of one copper water-pot
( [kudam ) to be placed on the copper pinnacle (stupi tadi ) of the
srivimana. Its copper constituent weighed 3,083 palarns and the
gold gilding which was in the shape of plates ( tagadu ) weighed
2926! kalanjus. When we add together all the gifts in the shape
of gold images, ornaments, vessels and so forth, made by Rajaraja I,
we get a staggering figure of 38,604 kalanjus in round figures.
In addition to the above, a number of ornaments were gifted
to the temple, which were made partly of gold and jewels from the
temple treasury, and partly of pearls which the king had presented
to the temple before the twenty-ninth year of his reign. A number
of corals were also secured by the temple treasury out of the
booty which the king had seized after conquering the Ghera
king and the Pandyas in Malai Nadu. With these, one diadem
and nine girdles were made for the use of the image of Rajaraje-
svarar, the principal deity of the temple. The details of these
jewels are given in an inscription “engraved on stone on the
jagatippadai and on the upapithattu kandappadai of the koyil of Chand-
esvara”. Besides these gifts, 30 more ornaments, made partly of
gold and jewels from the temple treasury and partly of pearls,
which Rajaraja I had given to the temple up to his twenty-ninth
year, were gifted (SII, II, 59 and 3).
In the enumeration, the gifts are divided into various groups :
(i) one diadem, weighing 1,197 kalanjus (value lost) and nine
sacred girdles weighing 643 kalanjus and valued at 2,730 kasus
make one group ; (ii) a second group of six girdles, weighing
325 kalanjus and valued at 460 kasus ; ( in ) bracelets numbering
16, made of pearls constituted a third group, weighing 155 kalanjus
and having 5,770 pearls, valued at 403 kasus ; (iv) five pearl orna-
ments called srichhandas gifted to the Lord make up yet another
group ; they contained 38,844 pearls, weighed 158 kalanjus
and were valued at 209 kasus. And finally three more items were
gifted, viz--, a crown ( sri-mudi ), a garland (, tiru-malai ) and an
umbrella ( tirupurak-kudai ) .
Thus in all, a crown, a diadem, 15 girdles, 16 bracelets, five
srichhandas, a garland and a parasol were gifted to the temple
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
57
(SII, II, 59 and 3). Excluding the diadem (whose value is lost),
these items had a total value of 4072 kasus (adding up 86 kasus
for the crown, 18 kasus for the garland, 71 J kasus for the parasol,
2735 kasus for the nine girdles, 403 kasus for the 16 bracelets,
550 kasus for another six girdles and 209 kasus for the five sri-
chhandas) .
Out of the treasures seized from the Cheras and the Pandyas
and out of his own treasures, Rajaraja I presented further jewels
and ornaments to the Lord. They include necklaces, armlets,
bracelets, rings and sandals (footwear) made of wood and covered
with gold plates and set with jewels. An interesting aspect is
that there were four rings, which had all the nine gems ( navaratnam )
set in them, viz-, diamond, sapphire, pearl, topaz, cinnamon
stone, coral, emerald, lapis lazuli and ruby. This complete com-
plement of gems is found recorded only in the inscription in
Rajarajesvaram (SII, II, 93). These items are described as
bejewelled ornaments ( rattinattin tiru-abharanangal).*
We get the names of all the nine gems in Tamil. I hey are :
vairam (diamond), nilam (sapphire), rnuttu (pearls), pushparaga or
pushyaraga (topaz), gomedakam (cinnamon stone), pavalam (coral),
maragatam (emerald), vaiduryam (lapis lazuli) and manikkatn (ruby).
There are special types of rubies called sattan and ilaisungi (pre-
sumably named after some of their characteristics), inferior
rubies called kuruvindam, and superior rubies like halam, komalam
and halahalam : again, there are plain diamonds, kuppi diamonds
and crystal ( palingu or palikku) diamonds. At least twelve
different classifications in pearls were known to the Cholas :
(1) round pearls ; (2) roundish pearls ; (3) polished pearls ;
(4) small pearls ; (5) nimbolam ; (6) pavittam ; (7) ambumudu ;
(8) crude pearls ; (9) twin pearls ; (10) sappati ; (11) sakkattu ;
and (12) pearls of brilliant water and red water, and others.
In all, this batch of gifts consists of 55 pieces — six necklaces,
three composite necklaces, one tali (marriage badge), three
armlets, one padakkam , six pearl bangles, two bracelets, two coral
*As usual, they were weighed against the stone called Dakshina Meru Vitankan; the standard
manner of weighing jewellery was to exclude the threads ( saradu ), the frames ( sattam ), and the
copper nails ( seppanti ) and include the lac ( arakku ) and the pinju (?).
58
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
bracelets, one girdle, two pearl uruttus, two coral uruttus, one
diamond uruttu, two sonaka-chidukkin-kudu* , five jewelled rings,
four navaratna rings, one prishtakandigai , one srichhandam, three
pairs of sandals and six others whose descriptions are lost. The
value of these items (excluding 13, whose values are lost) comes
to 4,390 kasus.
In his dainty little book on the Jewellery of India, Francis
Brunei, an ardent admirer of Indian Culture and Art, observes :
“India’s fabulous heritage in the field of Jewellery is
unparalleled anywhere else, for not only has it at least
5,000 years of unbroken tradition behind it, but also
because it has given to its jewels the highest meanings in
associating the most precious metals and the purest
gems with a vision of the universe, nature and life, and
the cosmic energies permeating the whole creation
in works of beauty,”
and adds aptly that
. .nowhere else have jewels had a greater place, or have
been more associated with divinity, blessing and protection,
power and glory, success and prosperity.”
Kings and nobles in all ages have revelled in jewellery. The
author points out that flowers and garlands of all patterns and
colours have been the first jewels within the reach of the humblest
ones. Another notable feature of Indian culture was that even
the highest in the land gave away the best of every thing — even
of jewels — to their patron deities. Hence it is that the temples
became the most valuable custodians of the precious objects
of art — and for this very reason also became the target of attack
during periods of political convulsions.
We may next take up the gifts of silver made by Rajaraja I
*A very interesting item of jewellery is the Sonakachchidukkin kudu. Chidukku is a commonly
known ornament of the medieval period worn by women, and the term “Sonaka” would seem to
have come into Tamil in the following manner: Sonaka<Jonaka<Javanaka<Yauanaka (a Greek
or more generally one from the Middle East). So this item could have been modelled on a Greek
piece of jewellery. We have at least one instance of an Arab who rose to eminence in the Chola
court one who bore the Indian name of Paranjoti (of Savur) (SII, II, 95 and p. 460).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
59
to this temple. As Venkayya says, “it is worthy of note that
there is only one inscription of the temple (SII, II, 91) which
mentions presents made of silver. Most of the other inscriptions
record gifts of gold”. The Government Epigraphist humorously
remarks : “It looks as if the king had more gold and precious
stones at his disposal than silver”. This inscription contains a
list of silver utensils which are said to have borne the names of
Sivapadasekharan and Sri Rajarajan and derived from the three
sources, viz-, (1) the king’s own treasure, (2) the booty seized
in the war against the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai
Nadu, and (3) the silver seized in the same campaign. The in-
scription is damaged at different portions and thus prevents a full
enlistment of all the silver utensils and aids for worship ( velliyin
tirupparikkalangal) . Silver items, like gold items, were measured
(weighed) by the unit of weight (for precious metals and stones)
called the Adavallan. In all, a total of 155 silver items (vessels
and utensils) were given to the Lord. There are seven more items
which are not decipherable, apart from a number of items which
have been lost to us as the inscription is much damaged at six
places. These 155 items of silver weigh a total of 48,400 kalanjus.
The inscription gives a complete list of these items with the
weight of each including that of gold wherever it is an added
element.
(B) Kundavai
Having set up the four icons mentioned in the earlier section,
she proceeded to endow them as also the images of the two Vitan-
kars set up by her brother, with ornaments and jewels, whose
number, value and variety stagger the imagination of the reader.
She gave to
(1) the image of her mother, 20 ear-rings ( kambi ) valued at
six kasus , and a string of beads for the marriage badge ( tali-mani
vadam ) ,
(2) the god Dakshina Meru Vitankar an ornament consisting
of a single string on which were strung 35 old pearls, two corals,
two lapis lazuli, one talimbam, one padugan and one kokkuvay,
equal in value to 1 1 kasus, and
MIDDLE CIIOLA TEMPLES
Go
(3) the goddess Uma Paramesvari, the Consort of Dakshina
Meru Vitankar, an ornament consisting of a single string on
which were strung thirty-five old pearls, viz., roundish pearls,
polished pearls and small pearls, two corals, two lapis lazuli,
one talimbam, one padugan , and one kokkuvay, valued at 12 kasus.
In addition, for decorating the sacred hall ( tiruvarangu ) which
the goddess Uma Paramesvari, the Consort of the Lord Dakshina
Meru Vitankar, and the goddess Uma Paramesvari, the Consort
of Tanjai Vitankar, occupied while on procession during the
sacred festival (tiru vilaa ), she gave 3,500 kalanjus of gold, which
was a quarter superior in fineness to the gold standard called
dandayani and 1,500 kalanjus of gold which was one degree
inferior to that standard, making a total of 5,000 kalanjus of
gold.
Further, for the sacred food (tiru arnudu), temple garlands
( tiruppallittamam ), oil for the sacred lamps and other expenses
( alivu ) required when the goddess Uma Paramesvari, the Consort
of Dakshina Meru Vitankar and the goddess Uma Parames-
vari, the Consort of Tanjai Vitankar were carried in procession,
she deposited money with various village bodies, on interest
in kind, i.e. paddy at the rate of three kurunis per kasu per year
(which worked out to I2|%) to be delivered into the treasury
of the temple of Rajarajesvaram, measured by the standard unit
of volumetric measure for grains known as the Adavallan.
To meet the requirements of the image of Ponnraligait Tunjiva
Devar, she made the following arrangements :
(1) one set of arrangements, similar to the above one, under
which paddy as interest in kind at the rate of three kurunis per
kasu per year on money (kasu) deposited with them, was to be
measured into the sacred treasury, and for this purpose, she
deposited with the local body of Gandaraditta chaturvediman-
galam a sum of 520 kasus bearing an annual interest of 130 kalams
of paddy.
(2) In addition, she enumerated a list of items connected
with the daily worship of this image, for which a total of 51
kasus per year was needed. And this amount was to be met by the
interest on certain deposits of cash she made with the various
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 6 1
villages* which was to be paid into the sacred treasury in cash
at the rate of one-eighth of an akkam (one twelfth of a kasu)
per month per kasu as interest.
(3) In addition, for keeping ten twilight lamps burning for
this deity, she deposited with Pirantakan Achchan Adigal 32
kasus for purchasing 96 sheep (at the rate of three sheep for one
kasu) whose milk was to be converted to ghee and used for keep-
ing the lights burning and for this purpose this donee was to
give one ulakku of ghee every day.
An almost identical arrangement was made by Kundavai
for the worship to be offered to the image of her mother V anavan
Mahadevi, set up by her. This was in three parts :
(1) For the general expenses of worship, she deposited 520
kasus with the village of Kundavai-nallur, fetching 130 kalams
of paddy as interest per annum;
(2) The cash required for the purchase of sacred cloth,
curtains, towels, canopies and other items was to be deposited
in the sacred treasury, being the interest on a capital of
488 kasus deposited by Kundavai with the assembly of .Sri
Parantakachaturvedimangalam ; and
(3) She deposited with Pattattalan Kaliyan Paradan (Bharatan
32 kasus for the purchase of sheep for ten twilight lamps to be
maintained before the image of her mother.
What elaborate arrangements !
Yet another inscription (SII, II, 2) gives further information
on the contribution of Kundavai ; it consists of three distinct
parts. The first part (comprising paras 1 to 12) mentions that
on the 310th day of the twenty-fifth year of Rajaraja I,
*Details of the cash amounts deposited with various villages :
Village
Capital
Interest
in kasus
in kasus
Viranarayana-chaturvedimangalam
1 96
241
Parantaka-chaturvedimangalam
1 12
h
Sulamangalam
100
12*
Total
408
51
62
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Kundavai, the queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar and elder
sister of Rajaraja I, presented eleven gold vessels to the “goddess
Uma Paramesvari, who is the Consort of our Lord Adavallar”; the
second part enumerates similar gifts of gold vessels and ornaments
which were made by her between the twenty-fifth and twenty-
ninth years of Rajaraja I “to goddess Uma Paramesvari who is
the Consort of our Lord Adavallar Dakshina Meru Vitankar’
(paras 14 to 42). The last portion (paras 44 to 59) lists out
the gifts to the goddess Uma Paramesvari, “who is the Consort
of our Lord Tanjai Vitankar”. A third inscription, relating to
Kundavai’s contribution to the temple (SII, II, 7) covers her
gifts to the images set up by her in the Rajarajesvaram temple,
till the third regnal year of her nephew, Rajendra I. It mentions
13 more ornaments of gold and jewels, given by her to “Uma
Paramesvari, who is the Consort of our Lord Dakshina Meru
Vitankar” until the 3rd year of the reign of Kopparakesarivarman
alias Rajendradeva. The descriptions of these ornaments are very
elaborate.
The total value of all the 13 pieces of jewellery and ornaments
adds up to 11,820 kasus in all. It may be noticed that all these
pieces relate to one image set up by her.
Kundavai’s gifts to the icons set up by her and others (SII,
II, 8) in the temple of temples were unceasing. A further record
relates to similar gifts of a number of ornaments of gold and jewels
which were presented by her until the third year of the reign of
Rajendra I, the donees here also being the images which she
had set up herself. This inscription which is in three sections
of nine lines each ends in the middle with the statement that the
inscription is continued at the bottom of the south wall of the
portico, which unfortunately is built in. From the published
part of the inscription we have the list of gifts given to the Consort
of Dakshina Meru Vitankar and the Consort of Tanjai Vitankar.
These are: five pieces of gold ornaments, comprising a girdle,
two foot-rings (anklets ?) and two sri-pada-sayalam, gifted to
Uma Paramesvari, the Consort of Dakshina Meru Vitankar,
adding up to a total value of 6,200 kasus ; 15 items of ornaments
of gold consisting of a crown, ear-rings, pendants, sayalam, necklace
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME
6 3
and others, weighing in all about 391 kalanjus, whose value is
not given ; and two items of jewellery made up of a makuta and
a garland, the former valued at 700 kasus.
(G) Rajendra I
During Rajendra I’s time gifts were made to the following
deities :
1. Lord of Rajarajesvaram
2. Kiratarjuniya devar
3. Pichchadevar
4. Maha Meru Vitankar
5. Kalyanasundarar and His Consort
6. Ghandesvara devar
7. Dakshina Meru Vitankar
Until the sixth year of Rajendra I, Guru Isana Siva Pandita,
Udaya Divakaran Tillaiyaliyar ( alias Rajaraja Muvendavelar),
a minister ( adhikarin ) and a native of Kanchi-vayil and the
Valangai Parambadaigalitar, each deposited 180, 13 and 252
kasus respectively with the temple, as represented by Chandesvara
devar. These amounts were given out on interest to the assembly
of Nedumanal alias Madanamanjari chaturvedimangalam.
These amounts were supplemented by 805 kasus given out of
the sacred treasury of the Lord, thus making a total of 1250
kasus. Towards interest on 1070 kasus, the said assembly was
to measure with the Adavallan marakkal, 267 kalams, one tuni
and a padakku of paddy into the large treasury of the Lord at
Tanjavur and towards interest on the remaining amount of 180
kasus, the assembly was to pay every year into the treasury 22I
kasus.
The amounts (paddy and cash) thus received as interest
were to be utilised as follows :
(?) out of 22| kasus (which was the interest on the deposit
of 180 kasus by Guru Isana Siva Pandita), 56-]- kalanjus of camphor
( karpuram ) was to be bought.
(«) the interest of paddy on the 13 kasus deposited by the
minister was to be used for the sacred food and other require-
ments of the image of Kiratarjuniya Devar set up by him ; and
64
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(in) the interest of paddy on the amounts deposited by the
army regiment and the sacred treasury was to be used for the
sacred food and other requirements of the image of Pichcha-
devar, whose maintenance and worship was made the respon-
sibility of this particular regiment by the king. It will be seen
later that a similar arrangement was made for the other deities
of the temple by royal order (SII, II, 9).
A further amount of gq kasus was deposited with the assembly
of Irumbudal, alias Manikulachchulamani chaturvediman-
galam (present day Alangudi in Tanjavur dist.), a brahmadeya
in Avur kurram in Nittavinoda valanadu in or before the tenth
year of Rajendra I ; the interest in paddy on this amount was to
be utilised for food and other expenses of the image of Kiratar-
juna Devar, referred to earlier (SII, II, 10).
The same assembly accepted 506 kasus from the funds made
available by the Sirudanattu Panimakkal (the servants of the small
treasury) and paid annually as interest three kurunis of paddy
per year per kasu for the sacred food and other expenses required
for the image of Maha Meru Vitankar and His Consort which
had been set up by Rajaraja I (SII, II, 10).
The assembly of Arumolideva chaturvedimangalam in
Purangarambai nadu of Arumolideva valanadu accepted (from
Chandesvara devar) on interest a deposit of 294 kasus, which
the Niyayam Sirundanattu panimakkal, who were attached to
the images of Maha Meru Vitankar and his Consort had
deposited for the services to the two deities, whose expenditure
was to be met from the interest at the usual money rate (SII,
n, u).
The images of Kalyanasundarar and His Consort, which were
set up by Trailokya Mahadevi, one of the queens of Rajaraja I,
were by royal order made the responsibility of the Nyayangalilar
and the latter body deposited for the expenses required by these
images, sums which were received as follows:
i) The Keralantaka-vasal-tiru-meykkappar 1 1 8 kasus
ii) The Anukkavasal-tiru-meykkappar 8 ,,
iii) The Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar 35 ,,
iv) The Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar 5 ,,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
65
v) The Singalantaka-terinda-parivarattar 1 „
vi) The Parivara-meykkappargal of Tenkarai
nadu 339 „
all making a total of . . 506 kasus
On this capital, the same assembly was to credit into the temple
treasury the interest in cash annually at the usual rate of interest
(SII, II, 11).
The Pandita-sola-terinja-villaligal, a contingent of the Niyayam
Perundanattu valangai-velaikkara-padaigal, which was a regiment
of the Chola army, were attached to the main deity of the Raja-
rajesvaram temple; they deposited with Chandesvarar, who in
turn was to give the interest to the assembly of Palliyil, in Nenmali
nadu, a subdivision of Arulmolideva valandu, 3 1 kasus on money
interest, for the expenses required for this image. Similarly the
Nittavinoda terinda valangai velaikkarar, another contingent of the
army, deposited 13 kasus with the same assembly for the same
purpose (SII, II, 12).
The Niyayam-uttama-sola-terinda-andalagattalar, who were
attached to the image of Chandesvarar which had been set up by
Perundanam Irayiravan Pallavayan alias Mummadisola Posan
alias Uttama Sola Pallavaraiyan deposited 60 kasus with the
same assembly for the services to that image to be conducted out
of the money interest on the said sum (SII, II, 1 2) .
The Rajavinoda-terinda-valangai-velaikkarar, a contingent of
the Niyayam Perundanattu valangai-velaikkara-padaigal, who were
attached to the Lord of the Rajarajesvaram temple deposited with
the assembly of Perumbalamarudur, a brahmadeya in Puran-
garambai nadu for the expenses required for this image, a sum of
310 kasus on money interest. The Chandaparakrama-terinda-valangai-
velaikkarar deposited 223 kasus for the same purpose, and the
Pandita-Sola-terinda-villaliyar 267 kasus, also for the same purpose.
They total 800 kasus (SII, II, 13).
The Niyayam-Sirundanattu-valangai-velaikkara-padaigalilar, who
were attached by royal order to the image of Dakshina Meru
Vitankar set up by Rajaraja I, had deposited 1000 kasus with
66
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the assembly of Kalappal, a brahmadeya in Purangarambai nadu
of Arumolideva valanadu for meeting the expenses of services
to this image out of the interest (of 125 kasus) (SII, II, 14).
The same army regiment deposited a further sum of 500
kasus, for the same deity’s requirements, with the assembly of
Vanganagar, a brahmadeya of Purangarambai nadu, mentioned
earlier (SII, II, 15).
Again, the same army regiment deposited 300 kasus for the
services to the same deity, with the assembly of Kori, a brahmadeya
in the same nadu as above; 37^ kasus was the interest to be paid
into the sacred treasury (SII, II, 16).
The same regiment, for the same purpose, for the same deity
deposited 800 kasus bearing an annual interest of 100 kasus with
the assembly of Arinjigai chaturvedimangalam (SII, II, 17).
A similar investment of 500 kasus was made with the assembly
of Kundavai chaturvedimangalam (SII, II, 18).
Further, the same regiment, for the same purpose, for the
same deity, deposited 500 kasus, bearing an annual interest of 62-|
kasus, with the assembly of Panaiyur, a brahmadeya in Purangaram-
bai nadu (SII, II, 19).
The icon of Dakshina Meru Vitankar appears to have received
massive grants and considerable attention.
(D) By Officers
Gifts (other than icons) made by the officers of Rajaraja I
are again numerous.
1 . Kadan Ganavadi
Among them are those made by one Kadan Ganavadi
(Ganapati), a native of Muruganallur in Puliyur nadu, a sub-
division of Arulmolideva valanadu, and a pani magan (servant)
of the minor treasury ( sirudanam ) of the Lord Sri Rajaraja devar.
He deposited 56 kasus with the perumakkal of the perangadi of
Tribhuvanamahadevi, which was situated within the city limits
of the capital (of Tanjavur) for meeting the annual expenses on
cardamom seeds and big champaka buds, out of the interest of
seven kasus. This was for the main deity of the Rajarajesvaram
temple.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
67
Similarly, for supplying 2,160 palams of scented roots*, a
principal amount of 30 kasus was received on interest by the
members of the assembly of Iramanur, a brahmadeya of Miraik-
kurram, a subdivision of Vadakarai Rajendrasimha valanadu
(SII, II, 24).
2. Rajakesari Kodandaraman
Rajakesari Kondandaraman alias Jayangondasola Kadigai
Marayan, a musician from Nattarmangalam in Manni nadu, a
subdivision of Rajendrasimha valanadu, deposited 40 kasus of
money on interest. With the assembly of Viranarayana chatur-
vedimangalam, a taniyur in Rajendrasimha valanadu which
accepted this deposit and agreed to pay five kasus to the treasury
of the temple to meet the remuneration of ten musicians who
beat the tirupparai (sacred drum) to announce certain festivals
of the temple (SII, II, 25).
3. Karayil Eduttapadam
Karayil Eduttapadam, a native of Rajakesarinallur in Inga
nadu, a subdivision of Arulmolideva valanadu, who was the head-
man ( kilaan ) of the said village and the minister who wrote the
orders of Sri Raj arajadevar ( Tirumandira-olai) , deposited a sum of
50 kasus with the assembly of Perunangai-mangalam, a brahmadeya
in Vennikkurram, a subdivision of Nittavinoda valanadu on
interest for the purchase of camphor to burn a perpetual lamp.
From another record, we come to know of the donation of 100
kasus for the feeding of the Sivayogins. The name of the donor
is lost. The money was received by the assembly of Perunangai-
mangalam, who agreed to pay three kurunis of paddy per kasu
per year, to be delivered to the big treasury of the temple.
Two hundred and forty Sivayogins were to be fed on 24
festival days (including the Tiru-Sadaiyam festivals) (SII, II, 28).
4. Adittan Suryan
Adittan (Adityan) Suryan alias Tennavan Muvendavelan
who was in charge of the management of the temple of Rajarajes-
varam, deposited 78 kasus on interest with the assembly of
*Ilamajjaka (Sanskrit) = khas in Hindustani, a root used for adding fragrance to water.
68
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
Perunangai-mangalam, which in turn was to measure every year
19 kalams, one tuni and one padakku of paddy into the treasury.
Another sum of 16 kasus was also deposited under the same
conditions so as to yield an annual interest of two kasus for
burning camphor lamp along with the incense offered to the Lord
of the temple and to the image of Dakshina Meru Vitankar.
Thus 78 kasus for paddy and 16 kasus for camphor were donated
by Adittan Suryan (SII, II, 26).
The same donor gifted in the second year of Rajendra I, four
pots made of copper with gold coating, to the temple of Chandes-
varar. He also presented copper, zinc ( tara ) and bell-metal vessels
to the image of Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar in the main temple and
a number of pieces of jewellery to the Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar of
the Parivaralayam (SII, II, 86).
Appointment of Temple Servants and Administrative
Arrangements
(1) Land grants by Rajaraja I
Rajaraja I gave extensive lands as devadana to the temple of
Rajarajesvaram from all over his empire for the expenses (niban-
dangal) required for the Supreme Lord ( Paramasvamin ) of the sacred
stone temple ( karrali ) : Udaiyar Sri Rajarajadevar Tanjavur edupittta
tiru-karrali Sri Rajarajesvaram udaiyar paramasvamikku vendu nivan-
dangalukkut devadanamagach cholamandalattum puramandalangalilum
udaiyar Sri Rajarajadevar kudutta. . . . (SII, II, 4). The revenue
(kanik-kadan) from these villages was settled orally and then
engraved on stone in the temple of Tanjavur. It was laid down
whether the dues to the temple were to be paid in kind (paddy)
or in cash (gold), or both. In the case of payments in kind, -the
paddy was to be measured by the marakkal called the cc Adavallan” ,
which was equal to the standard unit of volumetric measure for
grains then prevailing viz., the Rajakesari. A replica of this standard
unit of measure was preserved in the temple for reference. For
fixing the levy on the village, the total area of the village was
taken, and the area of the land of public utility excluded. Such
excluded areas were the village site (ur-irukkai-nattam) , the sites
and the surrounding courtyards ( tiru-murram ) of the temples in
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME 69
the village like those of Mahadevar, Pidari, Settaiyar ( Jyeshtha-
devi) and other deities, the channels which pass through the
village, the stables, the burning ground of the cultivators, the
burning ground of the paraiyars, the paraichcheri and the ilachcheri,
the kammanachcheri, the stone-fold ( kar-kidai ) for cattle, the sacred
bathing pond (tirumanjanak-kulam), the other ponds and their
banks, the threshing floor, pasture land for cattle etc. The remain-
ing area is assessed to land rent. These details are contained in
three inscriptions of the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I (SII,
II, 4, 5 and 92). From the first and thesecond inscriptions, we get
a fund of interesting information about the administrative set-up
of the empire. From the last of the three inscriptions, which deals
with the lands donated by the ruler in the outlying provinces,
we learn of the assignment to the temple of certain villages in
Tondai nadu which bore the alternate name of Jayangondasola
mandalam, after another surname of Rajaraja I, Pandi Nadu
which bore the second name of Rajaraja mandalam (and which
later on during the son’s reign was to be renamed Rajaraja Pandi
Nadu), Gangapadi, Nulamba-padi (also called “Nigarilisola-
padi”), MalaiNadu, and Ham (Sri Lanka) which was alternately
christened Mummadisola mandalam. It may be recalled that
in the inscription SII, II, 4 mention was made of villages in Chola-
mandalam and the puramandalams, meaning the outlying pro-
vinces; this inscription covers the latter category of villages.
While the villages in Chola mandalam alone number forty,
those in the outlying provinces are comparatively few. While
the revenue payable from the land in the villages of Chola manda-
lam was mainly in the shape of paddy, the exceptions being
barely half a dozen where the payment was in terms of kasu and
that too mainly in respect of nagarams, in respect of the outlying
provinces the payment was partly in kind and partly in gold.
In respect of the forty villages in the heartland, the record
goes into considerable details. In fact, the details regarding the
extent of land (possibly determined after the great survey that
Rajaraja I made during his reign) are amazing and can compare
with those collected through any sophisticated modern machinery
of Government set up for conducting land survey.
70
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
From the lands of the 40 villages and towns lying in the
valanadus (districts) of Arulmolideva, Kshatriyasikhamani, Uyyak-
kondan, Rajasraya, Nittavinoda and Rajendrasimha, Rajaraja I
assigned for worship and for other requirements of the temple
of Rajarajesvaram a total of 1,20,119 kalams of paddy and a sum
of 1004 kasus.
In the case of Sri Lanka, the arrangement was somewhat
different from the others. The villages were required to remit
the revenue in the shape of paddy or money or iluppai-pal. The
last expression literally translated means “the milk of the tree of
Bassia longifolia” the oil from whose seeds is used extensively for
burning temple-lamps in the south and Sri Lanka. This oil was
measured in terms of marakkal, kuruni and nali.
In all, leaving out the particulars of some villages which
are obliterated in the inscriptions, 25,770 kalams of paddy, 1630
kalanjus of gold and 9 kalams of iluppai-pal were to be delivered
annually to the temple from the outlying provinces of the
empire.
The extensive land survey undertaken by Rajaraja I over the
entire length and breadth of his empire covering Chola mandalam,
Pandi mandalam, Ila mandalam (Sri Lanka), Tondai mandalam
and the conquered territories up to the banks of the Tungabhadra
and the Godavari is unique in the history of the world. It is a strange
coincidence that William the Conqueror of England undertook
the Domesday survey of the conquered land, about three-fourths
of a century later. But in elaboration, classification of land varieties
and the nature of tax assessment worked out, the Rajaraja survey
stands out as an unparalleled instance of its kind. The measure-
ment was precise to the extent of 52,428,000,000th part of a veil
(about 6 acres), particularly in respect of wet lands. This survey
was brought uptodate later by Kulottunga I in his sixteenth
year and again by his successors from time to time. Rajaraja I
was anticipating by centuries the work of Todar Mall and Abul
Fazl during the Mughal period and of Sivaji and the Marathas
(under the Peshwas) of the seventeenth century a.d. The honour
for this extensive land survey and settlement should go to Raja-
raja I and the officer-in-charge of the mammoth operations,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 7 1
Senapati Kuravan Ulagalandan alias Rajamaharajan ( Ulagalan -
dan means he who measured the world).
(2) Appointment of Treasurers, Accountants and Temple Servants
Rajaraja I set up an elaborate administrative machinery for
running the huge establishment of the temple; he issued orders,
and had them engraved on stone in the temple, that the inhabit-
ants of the brahmadeyas in Ghola mandalam, in Pandi Nadu
alias Rajaraja mandalam and in Tondai Nadu alias Jayangonda
Ghola mandalam should supply to the Lord of the Sri Rajarajes-
varar temple (SII, II, 69):
(i) as temple treasurers, such brahmanas as were rich in
land, connections or capital,
iii) brahmacharins ( manigal ) for working as temple servants
( tirupparicharakam seyya), and
{iii) accountants ( karanattar ) for maintaining the temple
accounts ( kanakkeluda ) .
And it was also laid down in the order that each treasurer
should be given a certain number of kalams of paddy per year ;
each brahmacharin, one padakku of paddy per day and four kasus per
year (somewhat higher rates for those who had taken vows?)
and each accountant and sub-accountant 200 kalams and 75
kalams per year respectively. It was further laid down that the
temple servants should draw their allowances at the city treasury
(; ullur bhandaram) of the lord of the Sri Rajarajesvarar temple and
the treasurers {bhandari) , accountants and sub-accountants at
the up-country treasuries {nattu- bhandaram) .
Leaving aside the instances where, owing to damage to the
inscriptions, the number of servants to be supplied by some villages
is not available, we get to know that four treasurers, 174 brahma-
charins, seven accountants and nine sub-accountants were provided
for service in the temple by a total of 144 villages, lying in the
eight districts of Arumolideva valanadu, Kshatriyasikhamani
valanadu, Uyyakkondan valanadu, Rajendrasimha valanadu,
Rajasraya valanadu, Keralantaka valanadu, Pandyakulasani
valanadu and Nittavinoda valanadu, all in the province of Chola
mandalam. The actual numbers are likely to be slightly more.
7 2 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(3) Watchman for the Temple
Before his twenty-ninth year, Rajaraja I made elaborate
arrangements for the security of the temple by appointing a large
number of watchmen known as “ meykkappu” (body-guards) ; his
order in this connection was to the effect that the inhabitants of
the hrahmadeyas in Chola mandalam should supply temple watch-
men to the Lord of the Rajarajesvaram, and that to each of these
temple-watchmen, the inhabitants of the respective villages
which supplied them should measure out 100 kalams of paddy
per year by way of remuneration. This paddy was to be supplied
and daily allowances paid every year, by the inhabitants of the
respective villages, out of the tax due. And under royal orders,
these allowances were engraved on stone. The order is contained
in two inscriptions (SII, II, 57 and 70) which incidentally confirm
that there were, to the north and south respectively of the Raja-
rajan Tim-vasal, a shrine each to Isana Deva and Agni Deva, in
the directions appropriate to these dikpalas. The list* contains
as many as 1 3 1 villages, which among them contributed mostly
one, in a few cases, two, and in one case, 6 watchmen to the
temple, the total being 143 watchmen in all.
From the inscription SII, II, 1 1 , we get to know that there
were three contingents of meykkappus, two guarding the Keralan-
taka gate (the outer gopuram ) and one the Anukka gate. We have
already noted that the latter unit of the army was entrusted
with certain responsibilities for maintaining the worship of the
images of Kalyanasundarar and his Consort, set up by Trailokya
Mahadevi, a queen of Rajaraja I.
From these two inscriptions, we also get the names of the
following queens: Pallavan Mahadevi, Vanavan Mahadevi,
*We learn from these and other grants that Chola mandalam comprised at least nine districts
viz.,
1. Arumolideva Valanadu 5. Rajasraya Valanadu
2. Kshatriyasikhamani Valanadu 6. Keralantaka Valanadu
3. Uyyakkondan Valanadu 7. Pandyakulasani Valanadu
4. Rajendrasimha Valanadu 8. Nittavinoda Valanadu and
9. Vadagarai Rajaraja Valanadu.
Each of them in turn contained several subdivisions (nadus and kurrams). (For a detailed list
of these, see SII, II, Part V, Addenda and Corrigenda, pp. 21-27.)
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
73
Trailokya Mahadevi, Panchavan Mahadevi, Chola Mahadevi,
Valavan Mahadevi and Ologa Mahadevi (Loga Mahadevi).
(4) Talip-Pendir ( Temple Women or Ladies ) and Temple Servants
The meticulous attention that Rajaraja I gave to the detailed
administration and functioning of the Rajarajesvaram, is further
demonstrated by the care with which he selected the men and
women functionaries attached to the temple. In an elaborate
record dated in his 29th regnal year (SII, II, 66), enshrining
his order, Rajaraja I assigned the produce of certain lands to a
number of men who had to perform various services in connection
with the management of the temple and to four hundred women
whose services were transferred from a large number of temples
situated in various parts of his empire; each one of them was given
an allowance ( nibandham ) in the form of shares ( pangu ), each share
consisting of the net produce of one veil (26.755 square metres) of
land which again was stipulated as one hundred kalams of paddy
measured by the standard (wooden) measure ( marakkal ) called
ee Adavallan” , standardised and made equal to the royal standard
called c< Rajakesari” . It was further stipulated that in the event of
any of these share-holders dying or emigrating, the nearest
relations of such persons were to receive the shares and to dis-
charge the ordained duty. In the event of the nearest relations not
being qualified, they (presumably the nearest relations) were
to select (other) qualified persons and get them to do the work
and receive the allowance. Should there be no near relations, the
(other) incumbents of such appointments were to select qualified
persons from among those fit for such appointments, and the
persons so selected and appointed were to be entitled to the
allowance. The names of all these persons were ordered by the
king to be engraved on stone.
For accommodating these new incumbents in the service of
the temple, two entire streets were newly formed, called the
“Terkku” and “Vadakku Talich-cheri” (the south and the north
temple streets), each having two rows, the northern and the
southern, there being as many as about a hundred houses to a
row. The female temple-servants brought over from various
74
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
other temples were given a house each in these streets, besides
the remuneration in kind.
This inscription provides indirect confirmation of the existence,
by the twenty-ninth year of Rajaraja I, of a large number of
temples in the Chola empire, which is of considerable historical
significance, apart from enabling us to date many of the temples.
We have here a number of Vishnu shrines which find mention
in the Nalyirap-prabandham, like Arangam, Tiruvengadam, Ah and
Tirukkurugur besides others like Avani-narayana-vinnagar at
Ambar, Sritali-vinnagar at Arapuram and Sripudi-vinnagar at
Pambuni.
A number of Saiva temples, which find mention in the Periya
Puranam are also to be found in this inscription. (The Periya
Puranam names, whenever they differ in form from the inscriptional
names, are given in brackets below) :
Araneri at Tiruvarur; Tirumandali (Paravai-un-mandali)
at Tiruvarur; Tirumulattanam (Mulattanam) at Tiruvarur;
Tirumangalam (Mangalam) at Ambar; Tirukkaronam (Karo-
nam) at Nagappattinam (Nagai) ; Tiru-achchiramam (Achchira-
mam) at Pachchil, Tiruppadali-Isvaram (Padalichcharam) at
Pambuni; Vadatali at Palaiyaru (Palaiyarai) ; Ambalam, Pon-
nambalam, Tillai, Porkoil-Tillai or Manram (Chidambaram) ;
Ambattur; Kadambur; Kandiyur; Karayil (near Tiruvarur);
Karuvur; Kottur; Nallur; Pandana-nallur; Paluvur (Tirup-
paluvur) ; Talaiyalangadu; Tiruchchorrutturai (Chorrutturai) ;
Tirukkollambudur (Kollambudur) ; Tirumaraikkadu or Maraik-
kadu (Vedaranyam) ; Tiruneyttanam (Neyttanam) i.e., Til-
laisthanam; Tiruppalanam ; Tiruppuvanam or Puvanam (in
Pandya desa) ; Tiruttengur (Tengur) ; Tiruvaiyaru or Aiyaru;
Tiruvalangadu ; Tiruvanaikka; Tiruvedigudi (Vedigudi) ; Tiru-
vidaimarudil (Tiruvidaimarudur) ;Tunganai (Tunganai-madam) ;
Vadavayil (Vadamullaivayil) ; Vayalur (Viyalur) and Venkadu
(Tiruvenkadu) . As many as 91 temples located in 51 different
places contributed these temple-women, some temples deputing
as many as five to eight women.
The names of these women are interesting. A number of them
bear the names of well-known sacred places; while others have
75
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
taken the names of royal patrons and personages. Among the
former are: Araneri, Tirumandali, Tirumulattanam, Tiru-
magalam and Tirukkaronam ; and among the latter could be
mentioned names like Rajaraji, Rajakesari, Arumoli (all names
of Rajaraja I), Kundavai (Rajaraja I’s elder sister) and Arinjigai
(after the name of the grandfather of Rajaraja I). Other such
names are Kannaradevi and Seramangai.
In addition to these female servants, a large number of male
servants were appointed for various services to the temple; they
received shares on the scale applied to the talip-pendir. Some of
the professions connected with the fine arts mentioned here are
those of dancers, actors, vocalists and instrumentalists, including
players on the vangiyam (pipe) and the vina, a large number of
drummers (uvachchar) , specifically among them, players of the
small drum called udukkai and of the large drum called kotti-
mattalam and yet others called sagadaik-kottigal ; singers in Sans-
krit ( Ariyam ) and in Tamil; and blowers of the conch ( muttirai -
sangu). In this connection, the terms gandharva and gandharvi
applied to some male and female vocalists, and the term pakka-
vadyar (accompanist), used without any further specifications of
the profession or instrument used, if any, are of interest, even if
their usage is somewhat mystifying. Other categories of servants
mentioned include: a proclaimer of the commands of the Lord
{tiru-vay-kelvi) , accountants and sub-accountants, astrologers
and subordinates, holders of the sacred parasol ( tirup-pallit-tongal ) ;
lamp-lighters, water-sprinklers, potters for the kitchen, washer-
men, barbers, tailors, a jewel-stitcher (ratna-tayyan) , a brazier, a
superintending goldsmith ( kankani-tattan ) for the minor treasury
of the temple, and several specific individuals named from among
the various troops ( velaikkarap-padaigal ) . Besides, the Chief Archi-
tect and two Assistant Architects (tachcha-acharyan), Virasolan
Kunjaramallan alias Rajaraja Perundachchan, Gunavan Madhu-
rantakan alias Nittavinoda Perundachchan and Ilatti Sadaiyan
alias Gandaraditta Perundachchan, were also the recipients of
Rajaraja’s benevolence. They were evidently the architects who
were entrusted with the erection of the temple at Tanjavur and
after its consecration, with its maintenance.
7 6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Altogether, by this order, Rajaraja I appointed, and made
provision for the remuneration of, 400 women servants including
dancers and 216 male servants including musicians, accountants
and others, with the necessary supervisory staff.
(5) The Role of Talip-Pendir in Temples
There are some later inscriptions which throw light on the
duties performed by talip-pendir and devaradiyar. An inscription
(date lost) of Virarajendra from Tiruvorriyur gives us the follow-
ing particulars :
Sixty veils of waste land in Simhavishnu chaturvedimangalam
were reclaimed and named “ Virarajendra vilagam”. From its
income in paddy, gold and kasu, various items of expenses are
mentioned, among which are the maintenance of (i) twenty-two
taliyilar who danced and sang; (it) one dance-master who taught
them dancing; and (Hi) sixteen devaradiyars (temple women)
who recited the Tiruppadiyam in agamargam or low pitch (ARE
128 of 1912).
Another inscription of Rajaraja III from the same place
mentions that a royal officer Vayalur Kilavan Tiruvegambam
Udaiyar Sendamaraikkannan alias Vaiyiradarayan made a
dedication of five women and their descendants for husking paddy
in the temple (ARE 122 of 1912 from the Adipurisvarar temple).
A similar practice obtained at Srirangam.
Some other instances of dedicating women as devaradiyars
to temple come from Tiruvakkarai in the South Arcot district
and Tiruvallam in the North Arcot district. In the former case,
three vellalas presented a woman ( adiyal ) and her daughter and
their children ( makkal ) as devaradiyar to Tiruvakkarai Udaiya
Mahadevar (ARE 183 of 1904, dated in the twenty-ninth year
of Kulottunga I) ; in the latter case, a member of Irumudi-solat-
terinda-villaligal dedicated five women of his family, including
a daughter of his and her two daughters, as devaradiyar, in the
service of the temple (“tiruvallam udaiyar sri padattile udagam panni
tiruchchulam satti devaradiyar aga vitten ,, — ARE 230 of 1921).
It is well known that the Rajarajesvaram had a large-sized
granary for stocking more than a lakh of kalams of paddy intended
temples of rajaraja fis time
77
for food offerings and connected services to the deities of the
temple. Some of these talip-pendir might have been attached to
the granary. The cleaning and the decoration of the temple
premises and the gathering of flowers and making of garlands
for the deities must have been done by those who had an apti-
tude for the work. But, generally, they seem to have devoted
themselves to singing, dancing, painting and allied fine arts.
How much interest and attention Rajaraja I paid to music,
dancing and painting is brought out from his inscriptions and
those of his venerable elder sister Kundavai in the temples of
Siva and Vishnu built about the same time at Dadapuram in
the South Arcot district and at Tirumalai in the North Arcot
district.
(6) Recovery of the Devaram Hymns
The ritual singing of the Devaram , also known as the Tirup-
padiyam , in temples, is a practice of great antiquity; the singers
of these hymns of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar were known
as “ Tiruppadiyam Vinnappam Seyvar ” or “ Pidarar We have no
way of knowing when exactly this practice began, but, from about
the middle of the eighth century a.d., we have inscriptional
evidence of endowments being made for this purpose.
The earliest epigraphical reference to such an endowment
is found at Tiruvallam and relates to the seventeenth year of
the reign of the Pallava Vijaya Nandivikraman alias Nandi-
varman (II) of the middle of the eighth century a.d.* There are
only very few Early Chola gifts for the recitation of the Devaram
hymns. Without any pretensions to a full survey, we can trace
at least three of them during the reign of Parantaka I. They
are at Tiruvaduturai (third year— ARE 139 of 1925), Lalgudy
(thirty-seventh year— ARE 373 of 1903) and Andanallur (four-
teenth year — ARE 358 of 1903, see p.16 of Early Chola Temples ).
Then we come to the reign of Rajaraja I.
Rajaraja I had a strong religious bent. His patron deities
‘Tiruvallam, Bilvanathesvarar temple : Vijaya-Nandi-Vikraman, on the north wall of
the mahamandapa : “tiruppallittamam pariyarkkum tiruppadiyam ullitta pala pani seyvarkkum
nellu nanurrukkadiyum ...” (are i-a of 1890).
78
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
were Adavallan (Nataraja) of Chidambaram and Thyagesa (or
Vitankar) of Tiruvarur. His religious fervour took two forms:
one was the building of temples, the other was his desire to un-
earth the vast and rich treasures of the Devaram hymns, not
very much in vogue during his time. He decided to recover
this great legacy. While he was thus pre-occupied, he heard
of the miracles wrought by Nambi Andar Nambi of Tirunarai-
yur. Nambi Andar Nambi’s father was a temple priest of Pollap-
pillaiyar of Tirunaraiyur in Sonadu — a village lying between
Chidambaram and Kattumannarkoyil (in the South Arcot
district). One day the father asked his son to officiate for him
during his absence, at the worship of Pollap-pillaiyar. The boy did
so. But the Lord did not eat the food-offerings made by him.
Annoyed at this, the boy attempted at self-immolation. Then
Pollap-pillaiyar yielded to his prayers and the offered dishes
vanished. The boy then requested the Pillaiyar to teach him
too, as it was then too late to attend school. The Lord did so.
It was a great miracle and the news reached the ears of the king
then in distress about the mystery of the missing Devaram hymns.
Rajaraja I rushed to Tirunariayur, arranged a festival in
honour of the Pillaiyar and requested the miracle boy to help
him recover the Devaram hymns. Inspired by his Pillaiyar, Nambi
revealed that the full set of the Devaram hymns lay in a heap
of cadjan leaves in a room in the western prakara of the Nata-
raja temple at Chidambaram under the seals of the hymnists
themselves. The king and Nambi went to Chidambaram and
requested the Tillai-three-thousand to open the sealed room.
The Dikshitars replied that the room could be opened only
when the saints themselves were physically present. The Chola
king then hit upon a strategem. He arranged a festival in honour
of the Tamil Nayanmars. Their images were placed in front of
the room. The seals broke and the closed room was thrown open.
As prophesied, the cadjan heap was there, covered however
with a mound, full of white ants flourishing upon the leaves.
The king was in great distress. He was consoled by a divine
voice that said that the heap contained whatever was necessary
for that age. Oil was poured over the heap and the extant leaves
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
79
were salvaged. Nambi Andar Nambi’s redaction of the Devaram
hymns led to a new life for these hymns, with Chidambaram
(Tiruch-chirrambalam) as its centre. Chidambaram became
the koyil — the temple of all Saivite temples in the Tamil land
and Rajaraja, the Saviour of the Tamil hymns.
Some scholars hold that this great event of the recovery
of the Devaram hymns took place during the reign of Aditya I,
not that of Rajaraja I. The appended note* examines the source
material on which this theory is built and how this view is not
sustainable. There is, as far as we know, no reference to endow-
ments for the recitation of Devaram hymns during the reign
of Aditya I.
* Views of Pandarattar and Vellai Varanar : The fact that the recovery of the Devaram
hymns is to be attributed to Rajaraja I is evident from the two works of Umapati Sivacharya,
the great Samayacharya of the Saiva Siddhania school (late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries).
In his Nambi Andar Nambi Puranam alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam, he states that the king con-
cerned was “... alahil-puhal-peru Rasarasamannan Abhayakula-sekharan” (stanza t), and
again refers to that king as “Irasarasa mannavan” in stanza 6, and as “Kulasekhara” in
stanza 13. In his other work, Tiruttondar Parana Varalaru alias Sekkilar Svamigal Puranam, this
king is referred to as “ Seya-Tirumurai-Kanda Rasarasadeva” (stanza 24).
Despite these clear indications of the name of the king concerned, two Tamil scholars — T.V.
Sadasiva Pandarattar, in his History of the Later Cholas (in Tamil, Annamalai University), and,
perhaps following his lead, Vellai Varanar, in his Panniru Tirumuraigal (in Tamil, Annamalai
University) — hold the view that this achievement is to be ascribed to Aditya I. To support this
view, they cite four stanzas (nos.50, 65, 8t and 82) from Tiruttondar Tiruvandadi written by Nambi
Andar Nambi himself; this, incidentally, is an enlarged version of Saint Sundaramurti Nayanar’s
Tiruttondat-togai, and these two works together form the source for Sekkilar’s Periya Puranam
alias Tiruttondar Puranam.
Of these, stanza 50 is on Pugal Chola Nayanar, described there as “Kogana-nathan Kulamu-
dalon”. Kogananathan means the sun, and since Aditya is a synonym, the above scholars have
apparently interpreted the description above as “an ancestor of Aditya”. This appears far-
fetched; the obvious translation would be “a descendant of the solar dynasty” and, since the
Cholas claimed to belong to it, would simply mean ‘ a Chola”.
Stanza 65 is on Idangali Nayanar, described there as “ Sirrambala Mugadu Kongirk-Kanakam-
aninda-Adittan-Kulamudsdon” (an ancestor of Aditya who gilded Sirrambalam with the gold
obtained as booty from the conquest of Kongu). This description is echoed in Sekkilar’s Periya
Puranam stanza 3 of the Idangali Nayanar Puranam'. “ marmiya Ponnambalattu mani muhattil pak-
Kongin-pannu-tulaip-pasumponnal payil-pilambam misaiyaninda ponneduntol Adittan pugalimarabir-Kudi-
mudalor". The reference here may be taken to be to Aditya I.
Stanzas 81 and 82 are on Kochchengat-Cholan alias Kochchenganan. Stanza 81 calls him a
Sembiyan ( = Chola) and stanza 82 describes him as “sempon anindu sirrambalattai sivalokam eidi
namban kalal kil irundon Kulamudal” (an ancestor of [the king] who gilded sirrambalam and made it
a Sivaloka [on earth] and sat at the feet of the Lord [there] . There is no explicit mention of Aditya I
as the King referred to here; it could be any one of the many Chola kings who gilded the Chidam-
baram temple, even Rajaraja I himself.
8o
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Thrilled with the recovery of the lost hymns, the greatest
contribution made by any king for the growth of Tamil liter-
ature, Rajaraja I arranged for the recitation of the hymns in
the temple of his creation at the capital. He appointed 48 Pi-
(larars or Tiruppadiyam-vinnappam-seyvars, for singing the hymns
before Rajarajesvarar, and two drummers to play on the kettle
drum and the big drum to keep beat as the others sang (SII,
II, 65) and made liberal provision for their and their successors’
maintenance. As already noted, Rajaraja I cast an image of
Siva (as Chandrasekharar) before whom he practised daily
the singing of Devaram and this deity is named in his inscription
as Devaradevar.
The two scholars take the last description to refer to Aditya I apparently since his name is
explicitly mentioned in a similar context in stanza 65. Thus they conclude that all the the three,
stanzas (50, 65 and 82) refer to the same king, namely Aditya I, and hence that Nambi Andar
Nambi must have been his contemporary and that the recovery of the Devaram hymns must,
therefore, have taken place during his time.
Our view is that only stanza 65 makes any explicit reference to Aditya I. As for stanza 82
Aditya I is not the only king credited with gilding the sacred hall at Chidambaram: for instance,
the description there finds an echo in Umapati Sivacharya’s Tiruttonda Purana Varalaru, making a
reference to Kulottunga II alias Anapaya who also gilded the above hall and by his acts of merit
converted Chidambaram into a Kailasa on earth: “ Perumparrappuliyur Bhuloka-Sivalokam-raa
polindu tonra”. (The Periyapuranam, incidentally, confirms that Kochchenganan was an ancestor of
Anapaya and thus of the Imperial Cholas: “ Anapayan mundai varum Kulamudalor aya mudar
Senganar”). The three stanzas quoted merely imply that the three king-saints they refer to
were Cholas and ancestors of the Chola dynasty but do not in any way prove that Nambi Andar
Nambi was a contemporary of Aditya I. Thus the theory that Nambi Andar Nambi recovered
the Devaram in the days of Aditya I has to be dismissed in favour of the theory that such a re-
covery was made in the days of Rajaraja I.
Devaram hymns :
The view of the Government Epigraphist that the Devaram hymns were rescued and compiled
during the reign of Kulottunga I cannot be sustained (see para 34, p. 149, ARE 1918).
2. Tiruvunnaligai and Aganaligai
(a) Sivapuram temple N0.30 - pp.167-170 of text.
(b) Attur, Temple N0.37 - pp. 178- 185 of text.
There are frequent references to Tiruvunnaligai - or Tiruvunnaligai sabhaiyar or udaiyar in the
inscriptions of the Cholas in Chola desa. An inscription of Rajendra I from Sivapuram (Temple
no.30, p.167-170) mentions the sale of land by the local sabha whose proceeds were to be used by
the tiruvunnaligai udaiyar to feed a sivayogin at the time of offerings to the Lord (ARE 226 of
1961-62). An inscription, in the same place, of Rajadhiraja I mentions the tinwunnaligai-udaiyar as
one of the many beneficiaries in the list of the revenues due to the king (p.168). An inscrip-
tion in the sixteenth year of Kulottunga I (ARE 145 of 1900) mentions a gift of cows for curds
and a sheep for lamps which were given over to the tiruvunnaligai sabhaiyar of the temple who
agreed to maintain the charity. A variant of the term tiruvunnaligaiyar found current in the Pandya
desa is Aganaligaiyar. In the Somanatha temple at Attur (temple No. 37, p.178) there is a record of
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 8 1
The singing of Devaram hymns by oduvars was also followed
in other temples of Tamil land, a practice which has come down
to modern times.
( 7 ) Gifts for Lamps in the Temple of Rajarajesvaram
The lighting arrangements for the Rajarajesvaram received
particular attention at the hands of the Emperor. As many
as about 160 lamps and torches lit up the campus of the temple
and its various shrines; and for providing ghee for burning these
lamps, the king made extensive grants to shepherds in various
parts of the empire for maintaining cows, she-buffaloes and
ewes; these shepherds were called upon to deliver into the temple
treasury a certain quantity of ghee for lamps.
These gifts are covered by two very elaborate inscriptions
(SII, II, 63 and 94 ; 64 and 95). Nos. 63 and 94, which are taken
up together first, consist of a list of shepherds who had to supply
ghee for the temple lamps from a number of cattle, which had
been presented to the temple before the twenty-ninth regnal
year by the king himself. To each lamp were allotted 96 ewes,
or 48 cows or 16 buffaloes, which were assigned to various
shepherds ( idaiyar ). They had to supply ghee to the treasury of
the Lord at the daily rate of one ulakku measured by the stand-
ard measure known as AdavallarT.
The shepherds who resided either in the capital city of
Tanjavur or in its vicinity understandably received a large
share of these allocations of she-buffaloes, cows and ewes. They
Rajaraja I (ARE 419 of 1929-30) which states that the tinwunnaligaiyar (p.178) agreed to provide
offerings to the deity with the income from the land endowed. An inscription of Vira
Rajendra Chola Deva records a gift of money to the aganaligaiyar (p.179) for a lamp in the temple
(ARE 400 of 1929-30). In Attur both these terms are used and they should refer to the Committee
in charge of the temple-stores corresponding to the modern term ugranam, which receive gifts
from the public and are engaged in the work of collecting and distributing various articles of the
sacred bath, food offerings to the deities and other items used at the time of worship. They were
in charge of the maintenance and proper administration of this department of the temple.
The Government Epigraphist has interpreted the term * Tiruvunnaligai’ as the main sanctum
( mulasthanam or garbhagriha) of the temple. This interpretation has been accepted by some scholars
and used in this sense in their publications. In the light of the above clarification, this interpre-
tation of the term does not seem to be valid.
82
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
resided in ten streets described as being outside ( purambadi )
Tanjavur, namely, Gandharva-teru, Villigal-teru, Anaik-kaduvar-
teru, Anaiyatkal-teru, Panmaiyar-teru, Madaippalli-teru, Vira-
solap-perunteru, Rajavidyadharap-perunteru, Jayangondasolap-
perunteru and Surasikhamanip-perunteru and in an eleventh
street, called Saliyat-teru (weavers’ street), described as being
inside the town ( ullalai ) . Other shepherds lived in specified
bazars ( angadi ) outside the city limits, viz-, Tribhuvana-madevi-
perangadi, Kongalar-angadi and Rajaraja-Brahma-maharajan-
angadi; the rest of them lived in quarters outside the city limits
in suburbs, which are listed as below: Abhimana-bhushana-
terinda-velam, Uyyakkondan-terinda-tirumanjanattar-velam and
Arumolideva-terinda-tirupparigalattar-velam. In respect of the
shepherds who did not belong to the city, the names of the
villages where each of them lived and the districts in which the
villages were located are given. Thus, we get excellent material
from this record to reconstruct the geographical divisions and the
political and administrative arrangements obtaining during the
days of Rajaraja I.
In all 2,832 cows, 1,644 ewes and 30 she-buffaloes were
entrusted to shepherds in, and in the neighbourhood of, Tanja-
vur and in the various parts of the empire.
Inscriptions nos. 64 and 95, which are again to be read
together contain the details of the cattle given not only by the
king himself but also by other donors and those which were
represented by funds (in kasus and akkam) deposited in the temple
treasury for the purchase of cattle.
Among the localities mentioned in these two groups of in-
scriptions, there are some which are common to both, but the
following are found in this list (nos. 64 and 95) only: Uttama-
siliyar-velam, Panchavan-Madeviyar-velam, Sivadasan-Solai alias
Rajaraja - Brahma-maharajan-padaividu , Raudra - Mahakalat-
tumadavilagam (named after the temple of Mahakala in the
neighbourhood) and Brahmakuttam (also similarly named) — all
these being inside the limits of the capital city— and Pandi-velam,
which was outside the city limits. Similarly among the districts
in the empire which find mention here besides those common
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
83
to both the groups of inscriptions are Kshatriya Sikhamani
valanadu, Keralantaka valanadu, Vada Konadu and Arumoli-
deva valanadu.
Another interesting aspect of the inscriptions is the light
they throw on the circumstances under which some of these
donations came to be made, and on the range of people who
made these grants, including the king’s officers, nobles of the
Court, institutions and groups of men for burning lamps in the
temple.
INDIVIDUAL DONORS
There are names of 14 military officers of Rajaraja I who
would appear to have dreaded the prospect of incurring the
displeasure of the king in the event of defeat in the operations at
Koli (i.e. Uraiyur, the ancient Chola capital) and to have vowed
to put up lamps in the temple in case their fair names were not
besmirched. This is indicative of the high standard of efficiency
of Rajaraja I’s army and the strict code of discipline and conduct
enforced on the members of the armed forces. Among these
14 are eight persons with the designations perundanam prefixed to
their names, viz., Uttar angudaiyan Kon Vidividangan alias
Villavan Muvendavelan, Marayan Rajarajan, Kandarachchan
Pattalagan alias Nittavinoda Villuparaiyan, Alatturudaiyan Kalan
Kannappan alias Rajakesari Muvendavelan, Logamarayan, Ra-
jakesari Muvendavelan (same title as for no.4 above), Vayiri
Sangaran and Kovan Tayilaiyan.
Among the others were some brahmanas who were presumably
royal arbitrators ( naduvirukkai seyda), two from Kamarasavalli
chaturvedimangalam and one from Kadalangudi.
There were other donors whose gifts were spontaneous efforts
at acquiring merit. Among them are:
Amudan Tevan alias Rajavidyadhara Vilupparaiyan Ulaga-
landan, Senapati Kuravan Ulagalandan alias Rajaraja Maha-
rajan, Adittan Suryan alias Tennavan Muvendavelan, the head-
man of Poygai nadu, Irayiravan Pallavayan alias Mummadi-
sola Posan of Araisur in Pambuni kurram, a sub-division of
Nittavinoda valanadu and Karayil Eduttapadam, the headman
84 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
of Rajakesarinallur and royal secretary.
The name of a royal lady also finds mention as a donor.
As we have already seen, Ilada Madevi, a queen of Rajaraja I,
set up an image of Pasupatamurti in the temple : her gifts of
cows and she-buffaloes for lamps to the image are recorded
here.
GROUP DONORS
Groups or bodies who made donations are:
Udaiyar Sri Rajarajadevar Mummadi-sola-terinda-parivarat-
tar, Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar and Palavagai-palampadai-
galilar.
There were, in addition, a number of individual perundanams
and merchants who made donations, viz- a vyaparin (merchant)
Achchan Konurkkadan alias Rajavidyadhara Mayilatti, the
Perundanam Rajaraja Vanakovaraiyan; Savur Paranjodi (a So-
nakan, i.e., a Tonaka or Tavanaka, one of Greek, Roman or Arab
origin — see SII, II, p. 460), Pudi Sattan, the headman of Nidur,
the Perundanam Namban Kuttadi alias Jayangonda-sola-Brahma-
maharajan, the Perundanam Tirumalai Vengadan, the headman
of Vayalur, the Perundanam Kon Surri alias Arumoli Pallavaraiyan
and the Perundanam Nittavinoda Maharajan.
From the second group of records (i.e. nos. 64 and 95), we
get a total of 1,296 cows and 5,280 ewes, donated for mainten-
ance of lamps in the temple. According to these two groups of
grants for supply of ghee, a total of 4,124 cows, 6,924 ewes and
30 she-buffaloes were made over to a host of shepherds for
supply of one ulakku of ghee daily per lamp.
A calculation made of the lamps thus burnt daily brings the
number to 158. The temple should have presented a fascinating
sight with this huge array of lamps.
“The enormous endowments in lands and gold made to the
temple show that the king had one sole object in his life, viz-,
to leave no want of the temple unsupplied. Almost all the booty
he acquired in wars he gave away to the temple. Utensils re-
quired for temple services; ornaments for the various images
set up in the temple; villages for supplying the temple with the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
85
requisite amount of paddy; money for purchasing the various
articles for temple use not omitting even camphor, cardamom
seeds, champaka buds and khas roots required for scenting the
bathing water of the gods ; sheep, cows and buffaloes for supply-
ing the ghee required for lamps; skilled musicians for singing
the Devaram hymns; women for singing, dancing and decorating
the temple; brahmana servants for doing the menial work in the
temple ; accountants for writing the temple accounts, and temple
treasurers, goldsmiths, carpenters, washermen, barbers, astro-
logers and watchmen were provided on a most liberal scale.
The systematic way in which the various endowments to the
temple were made and the principles laid down for their proper
administration bespeak a genius for organization which could
not have been quite a characteristic feature of kings in general
at the time” (SII, II, V, Preface pp. 11-12).
The long list of beneficiaries of the gifts made to the temple, “a
solid fabric of human greatness”, will dispel the erroneous belief
that the temple benefited any one class or community. There
was a sense of involvement of all members of society in the affairs
of the temple. It was a co-operative effort of all, for the good
of all, who believed in the temple as an institution for the pro-
motion of the material, moral and spiritual welfare of the people.
The Rajarajesvaram is a veritable art gallery rich in Archi-
tecture, Sculpture, Painting, Natyam and other allied fine arts.
It is further auto-biographical in character. We can reconstruct
the history of this temple and the momentous events in the
varying fortunes of its life from inscriptions engraved on its
walls.
The temple has another important feature of having four
doorways leading to the sanctum; the main gateway is in the
east, the other three on the three other cardinal points which
were closed by the Nayak rulers in the seventeenth century. Such
a temple is classified as the Sarvatobhadra type of temple. It is not
correct to classify it as a madakkoyil as some scholars hold (See
my Early Chola Art I, p. 22).
According to Vasiu Sastras, vimanas with five or more talas are
termed as Mukhya vimana and the Rajarajesvaram belongs to this
86
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
superior class and this structural temple entirely built of stone
marks the highest achievement of the Indian genius in the field
of Architecture; Just like the Kailasa temple at Ellora (origi-
nally named Krishnesvaram) sxcavated by the Rashtrakuta
King Rrishna I (a.d. 756-772) stands unrivalled among the
monolithic temples of India.
In many ways, it is a grand and unique monument of an
illustrious dynasty and is still a living institution.
A rapid survey of the later history of the temple is given
in the Appendix.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 87
Appendix on Rajarajesvaram : Later History
CHOLA
1 . Rajendradeva II ( a.d. 1053-1064)
SII, II, 67:: fourth year: gift of a daily allowance of paddy to a troupe of actors to perform
a drama Rajarajesvara-natakam during the Vaikasi festival. Order engraved two years later.
2. Kulottunga I (a.d. 1070-1120)
(a) SII, II, 58:: an incomplete inscription relating to a gift by Arumolinangaiyar . . .Maha-
deviyar, the consort of Vira Rajendradeva.
( b ) SII, II, 22 :: 35th year, 64th day: inscription of Tribhuvana Chakravartin Konerin-
maikondan (Kulottunga I) : the foundation of an agaram called Samantanarayana chaturvedi-
mangalam and a Vishnu temple of Vinnagar Emperuman, both named after the donor, a
Pallava feudatory of the Chola king, in the region of the Vadavar river, round about Karuntat-
tankudi.
3. Vikrama Chola (a.d. 1118-35)
SII, II, 68 :: fourth year: grant of an allowance to a person who measured paddy at the
temple and in the villages belonging to it.
4. Rajaraja III ( a . d . 1216-59)
SII, II, 96 : : third year: registers a political compact by three chiefs of Chola-desa to be faithful
to the overlord and to stand by one another in times of need.
PANDYA
5. Tribhuvana Chakravartin Konerinmaikondan
SII, II, 61 :: second year, 334th day: the Pandya king built the Amman temple of Ulagamulu-
dum Udaiya Nachchiyar (now called the Brihannayaki Amman shrine) and gifted a village of
1 1 velis of land to it.
6 . Tribhuvana Chakravartin Konerinmaikondan
SII, II, 21 :: sixth year, seventh day: certain devadana iraiyili lands in six villages, which had
been wrongly sold in the third and fourth years of this king, were restored to this temple.
VIJAYANAGARA
7. Devaraja II
SII, II, 71 :: Saka 1368 (a.d. 1446-47) : gift of gold and silver ornaments to the main deity
and Kshetrapala-devar by the emperor’s military officer, towards the success of his dig-vijqyam.
8 . Tirumalai-deva
SII, II, 23 :: Saka 1377 ( a . d . 1455-56) : royal order exempting a number of villages from taxes.
TANJAVUR NAYAKS
9. SII, II, 62 : the residents of Puliyur built a mandapa of Murti Amman, evidently named after the
queen of Sevappa Nayaka. Here the Rajarajesvaram is called Periya Udaiya Hayanar temple for the
first time (whence the modern name of Brihad-isvaram and Penwudaiyar-Koyil) .
10. Achyutappa Nayak ( a . d . 1572-1614)
Inscription of the Saka year 1490 ( a . d . 1578-79): order exempting goldsmiths from taxes.
MARATHA
1 1 . Raja Serfoji II
Inscription of the Saka year 1723 ( a . d . 1801-02) : the king gave a gift of jewles to the main
88
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
deity; he had a Marathi inscription engraved, giving the history of the Marathas from the days of
the founder to his days ; he made elaborate repairs to the shrines of Ganapati of the sub-shrine
{parivaralaya) , Subrahmanyar, Amman, Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti and Chandesvarar. He also
built some new mandapas and repaired the flooring of the prakara, the madils, and the temple
kitchen.
MODERN DAYS
12. The temple is being repaired by the Archaeological Survey of India. A statue of Rajaraja I
was recendy installed outside the temple precincts by the Tamil Nadu Government. A permanent
Ghola Art Exposition has been recendy opened in the temple precincts by the Archaeological
Survey of India.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME 89
TIRUVAIYARU
VADA (OR UTTARA) KAILASAM 2
Apart from Rajaraja I’s own contributions to temple-building
activity in South India, those made by his elder sister Kundavai
Alvar and his senior queen Danti Sakti Vitanki alias Loga Maha-
devi to the growth of Dravidian art are of considerable significance.
The latter, i.e., the senior queen, apart from the numerous
donations and grants that she made along with her royal consort,
to the Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur, also built temples
on her own.
Among them is the temple of Vada Kailasam at Tiruvaiyaru
on the banks of the Kaveri, about 16.09 kms ( IO m il es ) from
Tanjavur on the road to Kumbakonam. This temple is located
on the northern side of the outer prakara of the Panchanadisvarar
temple at Tiruvaiyaru and must have been built between the
twenty-first and the twenty-fourth year of Rajaraja I. It is named
Loga Mahadevi Isvaram, after the queen (ARE 219 and 222 of
1894 ; SII, V, 521).
The first reference to the existence of Vada Kailasam is
found in an inscription of the twenty-first year of Rajaraja I
(a. d. 1006) on the south wall of this temple (SII, V, 517 ; ARE
218 of 1894), according to which the shepherd Aiyaran Valavan
of the brahmadeya of Perumpuliyur received from the Tribhuvana
Chandesvara-kanmis 192 sheep for supplying to the temple 27
uris (measure) of ghee for burning two perpetual lamps at the
temple of Loga Mahadevi Isvaram.
Another gift was made in the same year, as seen from an
inscription, on the base of the south wall of this temple, dated
in the twenty-first year of Kovirajakesarivarumar alias Sri Raja-
rajadevar (SII, V, 518 ; ARE 219 of 1894). It refers to the sale
of land by the Tribhuvana Chandesvara-kanmis of Tiruvaiyaru
in favour of the Mahadevar of Loga Mahadevi Isvaram which
was built by Danti Sakti Vitanki alias Uloga Mahadeviyar. The
land measured three veils, one mahani, \ kani and odd, valued at
307 kalanjus and nine manjadis (the rate being 100 kalanjus to a veil) .
90
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
A year later, in the twenty-second year of Rajaraja I, there
is yet another inscription relating to a similar gift of 96 sheep
for the maintenance of a perpetual lamp for the Mahadevar
of Ulogamahadevisvaram at the devadana village of Tiruvaiyaru
by Vimayan Vambavai, daughter of Salukki Vimayan devi
Vanjayan Perrappai, presumably a talip-pen (SII, V, 516; ARE
217 of 1894).
An inscription of the twenty-fourth year of Rajaraja I, relat-
ing to extensive gifts of ornaments and vessels made by Loga
Mahadeviyar alias Udaiyar Sri Rajaraja Devar Nambirattiyar
Danti Sakti Vitanki to the Loga Mahadevi Isvara Devar (the deity
of the central shrine), and to the Uloga Vidi Vitanka Devar
(the processional deity), is of immense interest to students of
South Indian art as it gives a complete and exhaustive descrip-
tion of jewellery of various types given to the deities mentioned
above.
There is another interesting inscription, of the twenty-ninth
year of Rajaraja I, found on the east wall of the mandapa of this
temple, mentioning the gifts made by Sri Vishnuvardhana Maha-
devar alias Vimaladitya Devar of Vengi Nadu, the Eastern
Ghalukyan prince and viceroy under the Cholas who married
Kundavai, the daughter of Rajaraja I. They comprise eight pots
of silver (velli-kalasam) , weighing 1,148 kalanjus, gifted to the
Mahadevar of Ulogamahadevisvaram at the devadana village of
Tiruvaiyaru (SII, V, 514 ; ARE 215 of 1894).
In the fourth year of Rajendra I there is a reference to a gift
of land by way of tattarakkani to the architect, who built the Ulo-
gamadevisvaram, by name Sakkadi Samudaiyan alias Sembiyan
Madevipperuntattan, by Danti Sakti Vitanki, the nampirattiyar
(queen) of Periya Devar (Rajaraja I). Tiruvaiyaru is described
as a devadana village in Poygai nadu, in Rajendrasimha valanadu
(SII, V, 515 ; ARE 216 of 1884).
While discussing this temple, it will be interesting to mention
yet another inscription, belonging to the thirty-second year of
Rajadhiraja I (a.d. 1018 — 1054) (SII, V, 520 ; ARE 221 of
1884). This is important as it gives a complete narration of all
the wars and victories won by this Chola ruler, thus enabling
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 9 1
us to get considerable knowledge of the contemporary political
picture as also an idea of the extent of the empire. There is, for
instance, a reference to the Chola victory over the three Pandyas
(in confirmation of the Sivakasi Plates), viz-, Manabharana,
Vira Pandya and Sundara Pandya. The main purpose of the
inscription however is to list out the jewels and vessels granted
as donations to Loga Mahadevi Isvaram Udaiyar of Tiruvaiyaru.
Yet another interesting aspect of this inscription is that it engraves
two earlier gifts, one belonging to the thirty-first year of Rajadhi-
raja I and the other an even earlier gift, relating to the twenty-
seventh year of Rajendra I, as a combined fresh record.
The temple faces east. It consists of the garbhagriha , the ardha-
mandapa and the mukhamandapa with an antarala linking the latter
two constituents. The garbhagriha is a square of side 3.35 ms
(n ft.) inside and 5.97 ms (19 ft.) outside, the wall thickness
being 1.45 ms (4! ft.) at the cardinal points and less by 0.15 ms
(| ft.) at others. The outer surface of the garbhagriha is in two levels,
the central portion having a width 2.59 ms (8-| ft.) on each face,
projecting .15 m ft.) outwards from the rest of the surface
in the two karna elements extending 1.68 ms (5^ ft.) in length
on either side. The two side walls of the ardhamandapa are in
continuation of the side walls of the garbhagriha ; the inner
width of the ardhamandapa is the same as that of the garbhagriha,
viz., 3-35 ms (11 ft.) while the inner length is twice the width,
viz-, 6-7° ms ( 22 ft-)-
The intervening wall is 0.84 m (2! ft.) thick with an opening
0.91 m (3 ft.) wide connecting the two constituents. Externally
the ardhamandapa projects 7.16 m (23 J ft.) towards the east and
has a doorway of 1.06 ms (3! ft.) width. Further east is the mukha-
mandapa , , a square structure 5.94 ms (iq| ft.) side inside and
7.72 ms (25J ft.) externally, the wall having a thickness of 0.69 m
(2J ft.). The antarala between the ardhamandapa and the mukhaman-
dapa is 1.06 ms (3! ft.) in length.
There are five devakoshtas adorned with crowning toranas over
the niches. The images of Brahma and Dakshinamurti (mutilated)
are the only ones among the original sculptures of this period
still found in the devakoshtas of the main shrine and are of excellent
92
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
workmanship. The other devakoshta sculptures have disappeared.
(Pis 35 and 36)
The temple is an eka-tala structure with a spherical stupi ;
there are two dvarapalas on either side of the entrance to the
ardhamandapa.
TIRUVALANJULI
3 KAPARDISVARAR TEMPLE
BHAIRAVAR (KSHETRAPALAR) SHRINE
Tiruvalanjuli, on the southern bank of the Arisil, is on the
Tanjavur-Kumbakonam main road, 6.5 kms (4 miles) to the west
of Kumbakonam in the Tanjavur district.
The central shrine of Kapardisvarar would appear to be
an old temple dating back to the days of the Early Cholas, as we
find in an inscription of Rajaraja I, dated in his seventeenth
year, mention of a grant made to the temple in the thirty-eighth
year of Madiraikonda Parakesarivarman (ARE 620 of 1902).
There is again another inscription of the same king (Rajaraja I)
found on the south wall of the mandapa in front of the central
shrine dated in the twenty-first year of the ruler, which confirms
a grant of land made in the twelfth year of Parakesarivarman.
The mandapa itself would seem to be a contribution of Rajaraja I.
The Amman who is called in the inscription Vanduvalkulali
Nachchiyar also has a shrine which should have come into
existence before the eleventh year of Rajaraja III.
In the outermost prakara of this temple, in the south-eastern
corner, there is a shrine dedicated to Kshetrapala devar. This
shrine of Bhairavar (Kshetrapala devar) was built of stone by
Loga Mahadevi ( nam edippitta karrali).
An inscription of the twenty-fifth regnal year of Rajaraja I,
engraved on the north wall of this shrine, mentions the gift of
gold and costly jewels presented to this deity, both by Kunda-
vai Nangaiyar, the youngest daughter of Rajaraja I and the
queen ( Mahadeviyar ) of Vimaladitta Devar, and by Nangaiyar
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME
93
Madevadigal, the middle daughter (naduvil penpillai ) , out of the gold
presented by her father at the time of his abhishekam — “Rajaraja
devarkku adi arula prasadam perra pon” (ARE 633 of 1902 ; SII,
VIII, 234). From another inscription recorded on the south wall
of the mandapa in front of the central shrine, we learn that a gift
of land, made tax-free (iraiyili-nikki ) , as devadanam , was made
by a royal order on the 258th day in the twenty-fourth regnal
year of Rajaraja I, for various services to the two deities of Kshe-
trapalar and Ganapatiyar set up in the temple of Tiruvalanjuli
Alvar by Danti Sakti Vitanki alias Loga Mahadeviyar.
On the north wall of this shrine is an inscription of the third
year (221st day) of Rajendra Chola I, which states that he cere-
monially passed through a hillock (mound) of gingily seeds
(tila parvatam pukkaruli ) and on that auspicious occasion, gifted
twelve gold flowers to be placed at the feet of the Lord ( sri-pada -
pushpam) ; another gift of a gold flower is made to this Lord by
his queen Valavan Madeviyar (ARE 633-B of 1902 ; SII, VIII,
236).
Similarly, we learn from another inscription on the same
(north) wall of the Bhairavar shrine, of the third year of Rajendra
Chola I (ARE 633-C of 1902 ; SII, VIII, 237), of a gift of two
gold flowers to the Lord Kshetrapalar by Danti Sakti Vitanki
out of the gold used by her for the Hiranyagarbha ceremony per-
formed by her while her husband performed the Tulabhara cere-
mony at Tiruvisalur in the twenty-ninth regnal year of Rajaraja I
(PI 186).
The shrine faces west and, unlike the usual run of shrines for
Bhairavar, which are generally located in the north-east corner
of the prakara, the Kshetrapalar shrine occupies the south-eastern
portion of the third prakara space. The shrine is now cordoned
off from the main prakara by a brick wall ; but we may presume
that, as it originally stood, it had no wall of enclosure of its own.
The garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa and the mukhamandapa con-
stitute the shrine. The near-square garbhagriha measures 4.64 ms
across the axis and 4.44 ms along it, while the cella inside measures
2.60 ms, by 2.56 ms also almost a square. The finely-chiselled
image of Kshetrapalar, measuring 1 .65 ms. in height and .85 m
94
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
across the chest stands on a pitham. It is carved out of fine-grained
light blue schist and, in spite of the dilapidated structure enshrin-
ing it, the icon itself is in a fine state of preservation.
The srivimana is eka-tala. In the outer wall surface of the adi
bhumi, there are three devakoshtas, divided into a central bhadra
and two flanking karna elements. The niches in the east and north
are empty while the southern niche has the original, beautiful
Ganapati. In the griva niches, we have Vishnu in the west and
Bhairavar in the east, and the other two niches are empty. There
are two loose sculptures of Bhairavar in the vicinity and they
perhaps belong to the griva koshtas (Pis 37 and38). The griva and
the sikhara are in brick and mortar and circular in shape. The
ardhamandapa projects 4.25 ms forward, with the same width
as the garbhagriha. The north wall which alone remains of this
hall has two shallow decorative niches on its outer face without
any icons. There was a bigger mukhamandapa ahead of the ardha-
mandapa ; but of it, only the plinth remains, measuring a rectangle
of 6.95 ms across and 6.85 ms along the axis, being almost a
square again. This seems to be an independent Bhairavar
temple.
Of the other loose sculptures in the vicinity is one of Jyeshtha
devi, which is noteworthy.
ALAGADRIPUTTUR
4 SVARNAPURISVARAR TEMPLE
Alagadriputtur, or Alagar-Tirupputtur, as it is referred to
in inscriptions, lies on the southern bank of the river Arisil (Arasa-
laru), 7.25 kms (4I miles) south-east of Kumbakonam. On account
of its location, it was also known as Arisir-karai-puttur. Tradition
has it that Pugal-tunai-nayanar, one of the 63 Saiva saints, attained
salvation at Tirunaraiyur Siddhisvaram not far from here.
The Svarnapurisvarar temple has ancient associations and
is mentioned with reference to Kochchenganan of the Sangam
Age, who is said to have built 70 madakkoyils.
From a multilated record of the seventh year of Rajaraja I
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 95
(a.d. 992) found on the north wall of the central shrine (ARE
283 of 1908), we come to know that one Pullai Sattan Karivelar
Gandaradittan alias Mummadi-soliyavaraiyar built the central
shrine of stone and made gifts of land for offerings to the temple.
The Lord of this temple is referred to in this record as “ Tiru
puttur Udaiya Paramasvamin” A record of his twenty-second year
found on the east wall of the temple (ARE 287 of 1908) refers to a
gift of land for a lamp to the temple of Tirupputtur Mahadevar
in Paradayakudi, a brahmadeya in Tirunaraiyur nadu, a sub-
division of Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu. From a twenty-eighth
year record of the same ruler (ARE 284 of 1908), we get to
know of a gift of land for a lamp (Pis 39-41).
A shrine for Surya Devar was constructed in the campus of
the temple by one Pattalakan Adittan, a native of Kallur in
Mel-vemba nadu, a sub-division of Pandi Nadu alias Rajaraja
mandalam and a gift of land was made for offerings to this
shrine (ARE 289 of 1908), in the fourth year of Rajendra I. In
this record there is mention of Kurugur mat ham also.
This temple was reconstructed in stone during the days of
Rajaraja I. It was unfortunately dismantled and renovated during
the early years of this century, to which fact a pathetic reference
is made in the Annual Report on Epigraphy for 1908, which I
quote below :
One of the trustees of the Svarnapurisvarar temple
at Alagapputtur in the Kumbakonam taluk wrote to
me that the temple was being repaired. The report was
subsequently confirmed by a letter from the Collector of
Tanjore. When I visited the village, the work of demolition
had reached an advanced stage. But the lower portion of
the temple remained intact and all the inscriptions found
on it were copied.
It is a pity that such unchannelled religious enthusiasm has
often been the cause of considerable loss of precious inscriptional
and sculptural material and the destruction of old monuments.
During my recent tour I noticed to my horror the great violence
and harm done to the fine temple at Velvidai Isvaram at Tiruk-
kuruhavur near Sirkali, whose inscribed walls, devakoshtas and
9 6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
koskta pancharas are now irretrievably lost. I am, however, very
happy that the old features of the ancient temple with rich
associations will be preserved for posterity at least in the illustrations
of this temple in my book, Early Chola Temples (a.d. 907 — 985)
on pp. 186-7 (Pis 215-223).
TIRUCHCHENGATTANGUDI
5 SRI UTTARAPATISVARAR TEMPLE
i) Ganapatisvarar shrine
ii) Uttarapatisvarar shrine
iii) Vatapi-Ganapati shrine
iv) Chulikambal (Amman) shrine
Tiruchchengattangudi lies to the south of the Mudikondan
river, a branch of the Kaveri, and about 8 kms (5 miles) south-east
of the Nannilam railway station. Close to it are the Saivite centre
of Tiruppugalur*, where Appar attained beatitude, and the
Vaishnavite centre of Tirukkannapuram.
According to legends, this was the place where Ganapati
destroyed the demon Gajamukhasuran ; as a result, the place
became covered with the blood of the asura. Hence it came to
be called Sengadu, the red-forest. As expiation for having killed
the asura, Ganapati is said to have done penance. So the central
shrine was named Ganapatisvaram.
Appar and Sambandar have glorified the presiding deity of
this temple. In his hymn, Sambandar calls the temple Sirutton-
dar-Ganapatisvaram, i.e., the abode of Isvara worshipped by
Ganapati, who gave grace to Siruttondar. The story of Siruttondar
is found in detail in Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam. His original name
was Paranjoti.He served as a general of Narasimhavarman I,
the Pallava king of Kanchi, and took part in the destruction of
Vatapi (modern Badami now in the Karnataka state), the then
‘Tiruppugalur lies six kms, east of Nannilam railway station on the Nannilam-Nagapattinam
high way, where we cross the Mudikondan to reach Tirukkannapuram, 1.5. kms south of
Tiruppugalur. Tiruchchengattangudi is nearly 2 kms east of Tirukkannapuram and is reached
by a metal road.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
97
capital of the Western Chalukya king Pulakesin II. With the
king’s permission, he retired from military service and devoted
himself to a spiritual life.
As an ardent and humble devotee — as the name implies — of
the Lord of Ganapatisvaram, Siruttondar interested himself
in feeding pilgrims. One day, Siva appeared before him in the
guise of Bhairavar; and in order to test the steadfastness of his
devotion to the Lord, he demanded human flesh for his meal.
The cooked flesh of Siruttondar’s son Siralar was offered to
the guest. When the Lord witnessed this supreme sacrifice, He
revealed Himself before Siruttondar, and gave him, his wife
Tiruvenkattu nangai and their son Siralar divine grace. On the
northern wall of Ganapatisvaram, there is a sculpture-panel
of this scene, depicting their journey to Kailasa, preceded by
Siva and Uma riding the Bull-mount, followed by Siruttondar,
Tiruvenkattu nangai, Siralar and the maid servant Santana
Nangai, constituting the group.
Siruttondar and Sambandar were contemporaries. During
the course of his pilgrimage, Sambandar worshipped the Lord
of Nagaik-karonam at Nagapattinam and then reached Kil-
velur. Siruttondar met Sambandar there and invited him to
Tiruchchengattangudi. Sambandar stayed for a few days as Sir-
uttondar’s guest. After worshipping the Lord of Ganapatisvaram,
he sang two hymns on Him. It was at this time that Sambandar
also visited Tirumarugal and performed the miracle of restoring
to life a newly married merchant, bitten by a snake. After this
visit, Sambandar has given us a hymn linking the two temples
of Tirumarugal and Tiruchchengattangudi. Thereafter Samban-
dar went to Tiruppugalur.
The main deity of Ganapatisvarar is also called by various
other names, such as Mandarapurisvarar, Saktipurisar, Brahma-
purisar, Indrapurisar, Atti-vananathar (the Lord of the Atti
tree, the sthalavriksha ) , Bhaskarapurisar and Samudrapurisar.
There are two places with historical associations outside the
temple premises. In the south-west corner of the south street,
there is a tank called Surya-pushkarani. To the west, there is
the Siruttondar -tiru-matham, the place traditionally associated
98
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
with the original home of Siruttondar. It is here that the annual
Sittirai-Bharani festival is celebrated.
Next to it is the Siruttonda-Nayanar-firu/na/igai now built
into a shrine. In this, there are sculptures of Uttarapatiyar (Bhai-
ravar) who hailed from the north with those of Siruttondar and his
wife Tiruvengattu-nangai on one side and Ayyadigal Kadavar-
kon on the other. The existence of the latter sculpture indicates
the association of this Tamil saint with the local Siva temple,
and its existence even as early as the latter half of the sixth cen-
tury a.d. Kadavarkon belongs to the pre-Sambandar period.
Ganapatisvaram
The main shrine — which is also the oldest in the temple
complex at Tiruchchengattangudi — is Ganapatisvaram. It is
sanctified by the hymns of Sambandar and Appar (seventh cen-
tury a.d.) It should have been a structure of brick (in their
days), rebuilt of stone in the days of Aditya I (ninth century a.d.).
The sculptures of Brahma and especially of Ardhanarisvarar
now lodged in the southern verandah of the tiruch-churru-maligai
might have belonged to the structure of Aditya l’s age.
The present structure of Ganapatisvaram seems assignable
to the period of Rajaraja I. On the walls of this temple, there
are seven inscriptions all of which belong to the Middle Chola
period. Of these, three are of the reign of Rajaraja I. While
Sambandar calls the deity Siruttondan Ganapatisvarattan of
Tiruchchengattangudi, inscriptions of Rajaraja I call the Lord
Siraladevar of Tiruchchengattangudi.
An inscription of Rajaraja I’s third year (ARE 56 of 1913)
mentions a gift of land for two lamps to Siraladevar by Vellalan
Ulangan Sirriyan alias Tappilla Muvendavelan. There are two
inscriptions of his nineteenth year (ARE 57 and 59 of 1913).
One refers to a gift of land for feeding the devotees attending
the festival of Sittirai-Tiruvadirai when Siraladevar was taken
in procession to the mandapa ofSiruttonda-nambi. (Does “ mandapa ”
here refer to the Siruttondar -tirumaligai in the south street ? ).
The other inscription also mentions a gift of land by two residents
of Marugal for the celebration of the festival of Siruttondar-
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
99
nambi. Incidentally, mention is made of the revenue survey
carried out in the seventeenth year of Rajaraja I.
There are three inscriptions of Parakesarivarman which do
not contain sufficient details to enable us to assign them definitely
to Rajendra I. Though the Government Epigraphist assigns the
inscription of the third year of Parakesarivarman to Rajendra I
(ARE 58 of 1913), the identification cannot be sustained, as
the prefix Tribhuvana-chakravartin applies only to Later Chola
kings. In this inscription, the presiding deity is called Ganapatis-
varam-udaiyar ; while in the other two of the fifth and eleventh
years (ARE 60 and 62 of 1913), the Lord is called Param-
esvarar of Tiruchchengattangudi.
On the west wall of the central shrine, there is an inscription
of the 32nd year of Rajadhiraja I (ARE 58 of 1913) which men-
tions a gift of land, made tax-free, to Ganapatisvaram Udaiya
Mahadevar by the sabha of Tirukkannapuram, a brahmadeya in
Marugal nadu ; and the sabha is said to have met in the temple
of Piramisvaram-udaiya-Mahadevar in the village.
The devakoshta sculptures on the walls of this shrine are Gana-
pati, Dakshinamurti, Lingodbhavar and Brahma.
Among the parivara shrines may be mentioned those of Vatapi-
Ganapati in the south-west corner of the first prakara, of Subrah-
manyar and Lakshmi (displacing Jyeshta) both of them in the
western varandah, of Bhairavar in the eastern verandah and of
Chandesvarar north of the main shrine.
The present Ganapatisvaram could be assigned to the age
of Rajaraja I.
Uttarapatisvaram
This shrine is parallel to, and south of, Ganapatisvaram.
It is dedicated to Uttarapati — the mendicant Siva in the form
of Bhairavar who appeared before Siruttondar to put his devotion
to test. The earliest epigraphical reference to this deity is found
in an inscription of the forty-fifth year of Tribhuvana-chakravartin
Kulottunga Chola Deva (ARE 64 of 1913) found on the walls
of the mandapa in front of these two shrines. The Government
Epigraphist assigns this inscription wrongly, in my opinion, to
100
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Kulottunga III. The high regnal year and the absence of any
of the historical introductions of the inscriptions of Kulottunga III
lead us to assign this inscription to Kulottunga I (a.d. 1115).
So, it seems to us that the Uttarapatisavaram shrine and the
mandapa in front of both the shrines should be assigned to the
period of Kulottunga I. It may be added that the walls of this
mandapa contain inscriptions only of the Later Cholas.*
On the walls of the Uttarapatisvaram, there are only two
Vijayanagara inscriptions, of the fourteenth and fifteenth centu-
ries (ARE 51 and 52 of 1913). The first belongs to the reign of
Vira Viruppanna Udaiyar, son of Ariyaraya (Harihara II) and
is dated Saka 1306 (a.d. 1384). It records a gift of land to both
the shrines of Ganapatisvaram Udaiyar and Uttarapati Navaka
* Later Chala inscriptions'. All the inscriptions on the walls of the mandapa in front of the two
main shrines belong to the Later Chola period. We have already discussed the significance
of the inscription of the forty-fifth year of Kulottunga I.
There are three inscriptions of Kulottunga III. One of his tenth year, 123rd day records a
gift of land to the temple-architect, Rajendra Chola Achariyan.
Another of his eleventh year, 175th day registers that a document connected with the temple
of Tiruvirama-nandisvaram [see the next section on Tiruviramesvaram or (as it is presently
called) Ramanandisvaram] at Tirukkannapuram was engraved on the walls of the temple at
Tiruchchengattangudi “as the former was evidently not constructed of stone. . . ” The record
refers to the fifth and tenth years of Periyadevar Kulottunga Chola devar in whose time the
Tirukkannapuram temple came into existence (ARE 65 of 1913).
Two errors have crept in about this inscription. The record clearly states that the old stone
walls of the Tirukkannapuram temple had become worn out (the text in the inscription is “ivai-
palagai jirnittu irakshai arida irukkaiyil”) and could not stand the engraving of the inscription.
So it is wrong to hold that the temple had not been built of stone till then. Secondly, the name of
the temple is recorded as “Tiruviramanandisvaram”. The deity of this temple was formerly
worshipped by Rama. So its name is Tiruviramesvaram (Tiru-Iramesvaram = Tiruvirames-
varam). Sambandar’s Devaram hymn calls the place “Tiruramanadichcharam”. But the
inscription calls the temple “Tiruviramanandisuaram”. Anyhow, the later name has per-
sisted and the temple has come to be called now “Tiruviramanandisvaram”. This temple was
rebuilt of stone in the days of Kulottunga III.
An inscription of his eighteenth year, 330th day mentions a gift of land by purchase for laying
out a road to carry in procession Siralappillaiyar from the mandapa of Siruttonda devar (perhaps
the one in the south street) at Tiruchchengattangudi to Tiru-Marugal (ARE 66 of 1913).
Another of the same year (ARE 67 of 1913) refers to the remission of certain taxes in favour
of the temple for maintaining the worship of Siralapillaiyar.
An inscription of the twenty-fourth year of Rajaraja III (A.D.1240) provides for offerings to
Uttarapati Nayaka during the Sittirai-Bharani festival.
On the walls of the Vatapi Ganapati shrine there is an inscription of the 22nd year, 130th
day of Kulottunga III which relates to the acquisition of lands for constructing the third prakara
of the temple with a street around it.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
IOI
at Tiruchchengattangudi by one Somaya Dannayakar (Danda-
nayakar) . The other belongs to the reign of Vira Bhupatiraya
Udaiyar dated Saka 1332 (a.d. 1410). It records the gift of a
lamp to the temple of Uttarapati Nayaka by a native of Palaiya-
nur in Tondaimandalam.
The earliest epigraphical evidence regarding the Uttara-
patisvaram is found in an inscription of the forty-fifth year of
Kulottunga I (a.d. 1 1 1 5 ) and we do not know how much earlier
it existed. And the present shrine bears only inscriptions of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as we have just seen.
The sthala-vriksha is the Atti tree and this is found within the
mandapa in front of the Uttarapati shrine.
The shrine of Siruttondar is located in the south-east corner
within this enclosure.
The two shrines with the mandapa in front are surrounded by
a prakara with a tiruch-churru-maligai. At the eastern end of the
southern wing of the tiruch-churru-maligai we have sculptures of
the 63 Nayanmars. West of these are sculptures of Brahma and
Ardhanarisvarar (probably of the earlier Ganapatisvaram) , the
four Tamil saints and Sankha and Padma Nidhis.
In a mandapa in the centre of the northern verandah, there
are fine stone sculptures of what are locally called the Nava-
Tandava-murtis : Bhujanga-Lalita-murti, Gaja-samhara-murti, Urdhva-
Tandava-murti, Kala-samhara-murti, Kankala-murti, Bhikshatanamurti,
Tripur a-Samhara-murti and Bhairava-murti (Pis 51-53) .
In the north-east corner of this verandah, we have a fine
set of bronzes of Nataraja and Sivakami.
Stone sculptures of Bhairavar and Surya adorn the eastern
verandah north of the main gateway (gopuram) of the first prakara.
This gopuram is three-storeyed.
In the second prakara, we have the Alankara mandapa and
the Chulikambal (Amman) shrine of the Later Chola age.
It has to be observed that the original gateway in the east in
this prakara is closed and a new one built to the north of it (not
on the same axis as the main shrine) . The temple at Tiruchchen-
gattangudi seems to have undergone alterations during every
phase — Early, Middle and Later — of the Chola period.
102
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Siruttondar, Tiruvenkattu-Nangai and Sirala have exercised
a profound influence and fascination over the minds and hearts
of kings, nobles and the common people. Adittan Suryan installed
metallic images of these three, in the third year of Rajendra I, in
the Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur (SII, II, p. 172).
Tiruchchengattangudi is one of the most celebrated temples
of Tamil Nadu (Pis 42-53).
TIRUVIRAMESVARAM
6 RAMANATHESVARAR TEMPLE
(TIRU-RAMANADICHCHARAM)
Tiruviramesvaram* is a small village reached through
Tiruppugalur, which is at a distance of six kilometres to the east
of Nannilam. At Tiruppugalur, the river Mudikondan is crossed
and this village is about one and a half kilometres to the west.
Kannapuram, where there is a Vishnu temple and to which
references have been made in dealing with Tiruchchengattangudi,
is close by, only a kilometre and a half to the east. Thus Tiru-
viramesvaram, Tiruppugalur, Kannapuram and Tiruchchengat-
tangudi lie close to one another, and, in the days of the Cholas,
received considerable attention from royalty.
The Devaram refers to this as the temple of Tiru-Ramanadich-
charam, and its presiding deity as Ramanathar. In the records
found in the temple, the place receives the surname of Madana-
manjari-chaturvedimangalam. When dealing with the Rajarajes-
varam temple (SII, II, p. 320), we found that the village of
Nedumanal, like Tiruviramesvaram, was situated in Nenmali nadu,
district of Arumolideva valanadu, and was called Madanamanjari-
chaturvedimangalam ; from one of the inscriptions found in this
*See para 4 of the footnote on Later Chola Inscriptions, of Tiruchchengattangudi p 99.
The village is locally called “Ramanandisvaram” another form of the name “Tiruvi-
ramesvaram”: and in the Devaram it is referred to as “Ramanatich-charam.” In the
inscriptions of Rajaraja I, the village is known as “Madanamanjari-chaturvedimangalam”,
the alternate name being “Nedumanal”. It is said to be in Nenmali nadu in Arumolideva
valanadu. The temple of Ramanathesvarar located in this village was among the numerous
temples which furnished their own share of talippendir to the temple of Rajarajesvaram.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME 103
temple (ARE 152 of 1911), we get to know that the temple of
Tiruviramesvaram Udaiyar was located in Nedumanal alias
Madanamanjari-chaturvedimangalam. So it is evident that the
modern Tiruviramesvaram is the same as Nedumanal mentioned
in the Tanjavur Rajarajesvaram inscription. Amritavalli-chatur-
vedimangalam which is referred to in one of the inscriptions in
this temple (ARE 14 1 of 1 9 1 1 ) also figures in the Tanjavur
inscription referred to above, as one of the places in Avur kurram
which supplied brahmacharins as temple-servants to the Rajarajes-
varar temple.
On the walls of the central shrine, there are a number of
inscriptions of Rajaraja I, one of Rajendra I, one of Rajadhi-
raja I and also one of an un-identified Rajakesarivarman. The
earliest of them all are two inscriptions dated in the twelfth year
of Rajaraja I (ARE 119 and 120 of 1901) found on the north
wall; one other relates to a gift of money for two lamps to the
temple of Tiruviramesvaram Udaiya Mahadevar at Madana-
manjari-chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeyam, in Nenmali nadu
which was a sub-division of Arumolideva valanadu (ARE 1 2 1 of
1 9 1 1 ) . The only inscription of the period of Rajendra I (ARE
122 of 1 9 1 x ) is dated in his third year and relates to a gift of
money for four lamps. The inscription of his son Rajadhiraja I is
dated in his twenty-ninth year and mentions a gift of a lamp to
the temple by a brahmana of Tiruviramesvaram which is described
as being in Madanamanjari-chaturvedimangalam (ARE 118 of
1911).
Besides these inscriptions on the walls of the central shrine,
there are a large number of them on the walls of the mandapa,
covering the periods of these three rulers; besides, there are also
inscriptions relating to the reigns of some of the Later Chola
rulers like Vikrama Chola, Rajaraja II (?) and Kulottunga III.
An eighth year record of Rajaraja I mentions a gift of land for
a lamp to the shrine of Brahmisvarar and for offerings to the
shrine of Tribhuvana Sundarar, both of which were perhaps
situated in the same temple, by the cavalier ( kudiraikarar ) Sobha-
nayyan (ARE 146 of 1 9 1 1 ) . There is another record of the same
year referring to a gift of money for a lamp by the wife of one of
104 MIDDLE CHULA TEMPLES
the ganattars “who managed the affairs of the village” (ARE 148
of 1911)- A tenth year record deals with a gift of money for a
lamp by a brahmana lady of Amritavalli chaturvedimangalam,
a brahmadeyam in Avur kurram referred to earlier (ARE 14 1 of
ign). The same cavalry officer also makes a gift of land for a
lamp to this temple in a record of the eleventh year. The
inscriptions of the period of Rajaraja I range from his seventh to
his thirteenth years only. There are a number of Rajendra I’s
inscriptions on the walls of the mandapa ranging from his third
regnal year to the fourteenth, mostly relating to gifts of land for
lamps; one record mentions the provision made for the feeding
of Sivayogins in the temple (ARE 124 of 191 1), another registers
the distribution of stores for oblations in the temple as settled
by a certain Tirumanjana Pittar (ARE 129 of 1911). There is a
record, whose year is lost, mentioning a gift of money for a lamp
by a merchant who was living in the street named Virasolap-
perunteru in the city of Tanjavur (ARE 128 of 191 1). The only
record on the walls of the mandapa, relating to Rajadhiraja I,
is dated in his thirty-fifth year and contains only a portion of the
historical introduction.
From a record in modern characters on a stone set up in a
field in the village, we get to know of a gift of land at Tannir-
kunnamangalam to the God Ramanathasvamin and the Goddess
Tirumangai Nayaki of the temple of Tiruviramesvaram by a
certain Archchandira Sayebu (ARE 155 of 1911). The name
Ramanathasvamin of the deity is met with in this record for the
first time. Otherwise, in the Chola period the deity went under
the name of Tiruviramesvaram Udaiya Mahadevar.
The central shrine seems to be assignable to the age of Raja-
raja I, but its extensions should belong to the Later Chola age.
TIRUKKADAIYUR
7 AMRITAGHATESVARAR TEMPLE
Tirukkadavur or Kadaiyur is about 21 kilometres east of
Mayuram in the Tanjavur district, on the road to Tarangambadi
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME I05
on the seacoast, and is one of the eight virasthanams (places where
Siva is said to have performed feats of valour in Tamil Nadu
[Early Chola Temples , pp. 85 and 86). Appar, Sambandar and Sun-
darar have sung the glory of this Lord. The main deity is called
Amritaghatesvarar, and the Amman, Abhirami Ammai.
On the south wall of the central shrine of this temple, there
is an inscription of the thirteenth year of Rajaraja I which men-
tions the purchase of land belonging to the temple of Tiru-
virattanam udaiya Paramasvamin at the instance of the Assembly
(. sabha ) of Kadavur in Ambar nadu in Uyyakkondan valanadu,
by a certain Udaya Chandiran Amudakan alias Kalakala Mayilat-
ti, a merchant residing in the village who got it made rent-free
by the assembly with the stipulation that “he should pay a fixed
quantity of paddy to the temple every year for the expenses of
worship and for maintaining three lamps before certain images.”
(ARE 242 of 1925). On the same wall, we have an inscription of
the twenty-fourth year of Rajendra Chola I which seems to
record the promise of regular delivery of paddy for the daily
offerings throughout the year and for the requirements of eight
days of the festival, celebrated in the month of Chittirai, in the
temple of Kalakala Devar out of the land donated by Rajaraja
Muvendavelan to the temple in the eighteenth year of the king.
A third record found on the north and east walls of the main
shrine relates to the thirty-sixth year of Rajakesari alias Vijaya
Rajendra, viz., Rajadhirajal (a.d. 1054). It records a gift of some
lands as salabhoga after bringing them under cultivation, by a
certain Pichchan Adittan alias Vijaya Rajendra Muvendavelan
of Komakkudi, to feed 17 persons in the “ Rajadhirajan salai”
and to meet the expenses of worship in the temple of Kalakala
Devar (ARE 244 of 1925). The fourth inscription found on the
main walls of the garbhagriha of this shrine relates to the twenty-
seventh year of Kulottunga I and mentions that the mahasabhai
of Tirukkadavur in Ambar nadu in Rajanarayana valanadu
met in the Tiruchchirrambala velaikkaran tiru ?nandapam and sold
if veils of land, which had been lying fallow for 50 years without
any claimants, as a mathappuram to a certain Vanavarajar of
Korramangalam for feeding daily, in the Markandeyan matham,
IOG MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
ten Sivayogins well-versed in the Vedas, for the welfare of the king.
Of these four inscriptions found on the main walls of the
temple, the earliest relates to the thirteenth year of Rajaraja I;
this together with the fact that the deity is called Kalakala Devar,
the donor figuring in that record also being of the same name,
would seem to indicate that the temple was set up by the merchant
Udava Chandiran Amudakkan alias Kalakala, as also certain
images in the shrine. This temple must therefore have been
reconstructed before the thirteenth year of Rajaraja I (a.d. 998).
We have a number of records of the Later Cholas on the walls
of the prakara; one of them, of Rajaraja deva (II) belonging to
his 14th year, is interesting and mentions that the mahasabha of
Tirukkadavur in Akkur nadu assembled in the Kulottungasolan
tiru venduttukkati (hall) in the temple of Kalakala Devar to confis-
cate to the temple the property of those mahesvaras who, contrary
to their tenets, as the custodians of the Siva temple and its obser-
vances, “intermingled freely with the Vaishnavas and wore or
sold the lotuses (grown for the god)”.
While dealing with the interest evinced by the Ghola emperors
in the performing arts of drama, dance and also music, we had
mentioned under Rajarajesvaram the innumerable grants and
facilities provided by them to musicians, dancers and dance-
masters. We have a fine example here of the same in the period of
Kulottunga III. In a record of his twenty-third year, royal
sanction was accorded to the confirmation of the appointment
of a certain Parasivan Ponnan alias Kalavinoda Nritta-Peraraiyan
as nattuva nilai (dance master and musician) in the temple, toge-
ther with the remuneration for him in kind (paddy) attached to
the appointment, at the request of Viranattup-pallavaraiyan,
a favourite poet of the king.
The temple faces west. There is a separate shrine for Kalasam-
hara-murti. It houses a bronze image with four arms, issuing
out of the Linga to save His bhakta Markkandeya from Yama’s
clutches (“ Markkandarkkaha aiiru kalanai udaippar polum kadavur
virattanarey ” — Appar Devaram) (Pis 54 to 57).
There are in this temple a set of fine stone sculptures which
should belong to the Early Chola period.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA 1’s TIME 107
TIRUPPUGALUR
KONAPIRAN (SRI PUGALUR MAHADEVAR) TEMPLE 8
We have briefly dealt with this temple under our Historical
survey in Early Chola Temples (pp. 246 and 247). The earliest
inscription found in this temple dates back to Uttama Chola
(ARE 66 of 1927-28); but the temple received considerable
attention at the hands of the Middle Chola rulers and their
consorts and nobles.
One of the earliest records of Rajaraja I here dates to his
sixteenth year and mentions that Nakkan Tillai-y-alagiyar alias
Panchavan Mahadevivar, queen of Rajaraja I, made a gift of
some tax-free land for conducting a festival and for providing
offerings to the God every month on the day of Sadaiyam, her
husband’s as well as her own natal star. She also made a gift of
some ornaments to this temple (ARE 47 of 1927-28). In his
twenty-first year, a remission of taxes by the assembly of Karodu-
cheri, a brahmadeyam in Panaiyur nadu, was effected on the lands
granted to the temple by the king and the queen Panchavan
Madeviyar, for conducting special worship to the god every
month on the day of their natal star (ARE 54 of 1927-28).
Again, in his twenty-first year, a gift of paddy and money is made
by one Angikumara Kramavittan alias Porkoyil Chandesvarayogi
of Kundur for offerings to the image of Tirunavukkaraiya devar
(ARE 68 of I927-28). In his twenty-third year, one Selvan
Achchan, a member of Satturubhayankara-terinda-velam of the
queen Panchavan Madeviyar made a gift of nine gold flowers to
the god Konapperumal (ARE 62 of 1927-28). In his twenty-
seventh year, a brahmana lady by name Ganapati Ponnalvi alias
Solai gave money to the brahmanas of Pugalur for burning a
perpetual lamp before the deity (ARE 69 of 1927-28). The
southern entrance into the shrine bears an inscription giving the
name of the entrance as Irasarasan tiruvasal (ARE 71 of 1927-
28), presumably referring to Rajaraja I.
In the fifth year of Rajendra I, certain lands belonging to the
temple were exempted from taxes by the assembly of Bhuloka-
io8
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
manikka-chaturvedimangalam and provision was made for
offerings and worship to God Sri Kamesvaram Udaiyar and for
the recitation of the Vedas (ARE 52 of 1927-28).
From a tenth year record here of Rajendra I, we get to know
that the assembly of Bhuloka-chaturvedimangalam, a brahma-
deyam in Panaiyur nadu in Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu received
150 kasus from the temple and remitted the taxes on a piece of
land belonging to the god Sri Pugalur Mahadevar (ARE 44 of
1927-28). In the twenty-seventh year of Rajadhiraja I, a brah
mana lady by name Pichchan Sirudaikalal of Saliamangalam in
Inga nadu made a gift of money for a festival with offerings to
the image of the Consort of God Navalingesvarar in the temple,
on the day of Sadaiyam. It provided for the services of eight men
to participate in the ashta-mangalam ceremony during the bathing
of the deity (mirror, water-pot, flag, fly-whisk, elephant goad,
drum, lamp and a pair of fish (?) constituting the “eight signs
of prosperity”, ARE 49 of 1927-28). From a record of the 32nd
year, we learn of the setting up of a deity called Sivapurattu devar
for providing offerings for whom a gift of land free of taxes was
made by a certain lady (ARE 48 of 1927-28).
There is a fourth year record of Rajendra II on two lion
pillars at the north entrance in the first prakara of the temple,
remitting certain taxes on some temple lands (ARE 79 of 1927-
28). We could conclude that the first prakara had come into exist-
ence even during these days. In the fifth year, an agreement
was made by the assembly of Pugalur to pay 10 kasus as interest
on 40 kasus lent to them from the sum given by Parkkaran Arumoli
of Velur, in Puliyur nadu, a division of Vijayarajendra valanadu
for the expenses of the nul erram ceremony ( dhvajarohanam ?) in
the temple (ARE 57 of 1927-28). The same lady also set up the
image of Ulaguyyakondasola Surriya devar ( vitankar ) and pro-
vided money for offerings to this deity (sixth year; ARE 64 of
1927-28). In the eleventh year, one Devanpattagal Pandaram
and hei daughter, belonging to the Swapadasekhara-tirumanjanattar-
velam, set up in the temple at Pugalur images of Surya devar and
His two Consorts and presented them with ornaments (ARE
63 of 1927-28).
TEMPLE OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME IO9
Evidently, the first prakara wall came to be built along with
the central shrine, or at least during the Middle Chola period,
and the mandapa adjoining the north wall of enclosure was the
contribution of one Chedirayan, the headman of Arkadu. No
date is mentioned. The existence of lion-pillars in the Middle
Chola period is confirmed. They are found even in the Later
Chola period (see Early Chola Temples, pp. 246-7 ; ARE 78 and 79
of 1927-28).
Tiruppugalur is particularly significant, as the place where
Appar attained his salvation (Pis 58 to 60 and Lalit Kala 17).
NAGAPATTINAM
KARONASVAMIN (KAYA-AROHANAR) TEMPLE 9
Ptolemy, the ancient Greek geographer, mentions Nikama
as a great emporium in the east coast of South India, an important
seaport, strategically situated, connecting the great cities of the
west — and later the Arab cities — on the one side, with the
Krishna (Amaravati) region and the Gangetic valley skirting
the Bay of Bengal, the Nicobar group of islands (Manakkavaram),
Burma, Kedah (Kadaram), Sri Vijaya (in Sumatra) and other
Indonesian islands, the Philippines and China in the east, on the
other.
One of the 127 temples in the Tanjavur district south of the
Kaveri celebrated in the Devaram hymns is at Nagapattinam
(hymn no. 82). The temple called “Tiru-Nagai-Karonam” is
situated less than a kilometre north of the railway station, which
lies on the Tanjavur-Nagore branch line jof the Southern Railway.
Nagai is described as having lagoons and being washed by the
waves of the sea. It was a city of the learned, with long streets,
adorned with mansions; and the port was full of ships.
Various traditions have grown round this ancient coastal
town. Adiseshan, the king of the Nagas who was issueless, wor-
shipped the Lord of this temple and was blessed with a daughter.
The Naga chief gave his daughter in marriage to Salisukan of
the Surya dynasty and crowned him king. Hence the name of
I 10
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Nagai, which, being a coastal town, came to be called Nagai-
pattinam.
Legends mention that there lived in Vedapuram on the banks
of the Yamunai a rishi called Karuttamar by name. He had a
spiritual bent of mind. On the advice of sages, he went on a pil-
grimage in the course of which he reached Nagai (Nagapattinam)
and worshipped the Lord of the local temple. As a reward for his
supreme devotion, the Lord absorbed the devotee into himself.
Hence the name of the Lord “Kaya-arohanar”, which became in
popular parlance “Karonar”. This is the legendary account of the
origin of this name. A stone sculpture of this rishi is found on a pillar
of the mahamandapa of this temple ; there is a tradition that there
was here a settlement of the Pasupata sect from Karohana in
Gujarat. We have similar temples at Kanchi and Kumbakonam.
The Tamil epic, Manimekhalai, mentions that the Chola king
Killi-Valavan married a Naga princess and their offspring was
Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan of the Pallava race.
Agastya was another devotee of this Lord. King Dasaratha
of Ayodhya is said to have consecrated here an icon of Sani
(Saturn) to rid him of his sins.
The temple of Nagaikaronam should be one of the earliest
temples of Tamil land. Its Lord is sung by the Tamil hvmnists
Appar and Sambandar (seventh century a.d.) and Sundarar
(early ninth century). Kayarohanesvarar (now called Karona-
svamin) is extolled by the hvmnists in the various aspects of Siva,
such as Ardhanarisvarar, Lingodbhavar, Tripurantakar, Gaja-
sura-Samharar (who wore the elephant’s hide), Kalari,
Kamadahanamurti, the subduer of the proud Ravana of ten
heads and twenty arms, one who cut off the fifth head of Brahma,
the swallower of halahala poison, one who dances in the cremation
ground, the wearer of the garland of skulls, and polemically as
the chastiser of the heretical Buddhists and Jains. The place is
one of the Saptavitankar shrines; the local vitankar is called Sundara
Vitankar; it is famous for the Taranga form of dance. Sundarar
prays before the Lord here, as usual for gold, precious stones,
ornaments, pearls, silk, scents, unguents and even a horse for his
wives Paravai and Sangili.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
1 1 I
Nagapattinam was also the home of one of the 63 Tamil
saints, Aripatta Nayanar. He was a fisherman and the head of
their clan. He used to fish in the sea and give away the first catch
to the Lord of Karonam. The Lord tested the depth of his devo-
tion one day, when he caught only one fish ; even that was offered
to the Lord and he submitted himself to a life of self-denial.
Another day his only catch was a gold fish, and even this was
thrown into the sea as an offering to Siva. At once he attained
salvation.
Nagapattinam grew in importance as a sea-port and commer-
cial centre in the days of the Cholas. There was close contact
between the Sri Vijaya kingdom in the Indonesian archipelago
and the Chola empire. A vihara was built at Nagapattinam for
the Buddhists, named after the king of Kataha (Kadaram) and
supported by extensive grants in the shape of land revenue from
the village of Anaimangalam close by. There would appear to
have been stationed high-level emissaries of the king of Kataha
at Nagapattinam. We have seen, while dealing with Rajarajes-
varam at Tanjavur, that among the more important temples
which contributed temple- women ( talip-pendir ) to the metro-
politan temple was that of Tirukkaronam or Karonam at Nagai
(SII, II, p. 260).
In this temple there are a number of inscriptions of Raja-
raja I, Rajendra I, Rajaraja II and Kulottunga III. The earliest
of them, found on the west wall of the central shrine below the
Lingodbhavar image, is dated in the twenty-fifth year of Raja-
raja I and records a gift of 20 kasus for supplying paddy for food
offerings to the deity (ARE 165 of 1956-57). A twenty-ninth
year record of Rajaraja I mentions a gift of land in Palaiyur
for worship and offerings to the Mahadevar of Tirukkaronam
by the urar (the residents) of Nagapattinam in the Pattinak-
kurram (ARE 167 of 1956-57).
Two inscriptions belong to the third year of Rajendra I; one
records a gift of a jewel set with precious stones such as pachchai,
maragadam, manikkam and others in various parts like Virappattam,
makaram, vattappu , paruttikural and others, weighing altogether
14I kalanjus and one manjadi, to the silver image of Nagaiyalagar
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
1 1 a
set up in the temple called Tirukkaronam in Nagapattinam in
Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu by the agent (kanmi) of the king
of Sri Vijaya ( srivijay attar aiyar ) whose name is lost, belonging
to Menronri-pattinam in Kil-sembi nadu in Rajaraja mandalam.
The record mentions the name of the engraver, who was one
Eran Sadaiyan (ARE 164 of 1956-57). The other record men-
tions a gift of land by Mahilatti Sendan alias Keralantaka . . .
a merchant of Nagapattinam, and the gift is mentioned as having
been made tax-free by the urar (ARE 162 of i 956 ~ 57 )-
Evidently it is the same Eran Sadaiyan alias Devarakanda
Acharyan who fashioned several types of lamps like pavai-vilakku,
kurakku-vilakku and matta-vilakku, which were given as gifts to the
temple by Nimalan Agastisvaran, the “agent of the king of Sri-
Vishayam” (ARE 161 of 1956-57). It is likely that the agent in
both these cases was the same person. In the second year (presum-
ably of Rajendra I), several silver utensils for use in the temple
were gifted by several persons including some merchants and
Sivabrahmanas (ARE 163 of 1956-57). In the seventh year of
Rajendra I, it is mentioned that two gifts were made each of
87! kalanjus of chinakkanakam, and one of 6of kalanjus of undigaip-
pon, for (a) jewels to god Tirukkaronamudaivar, <b) worship
and food offerings (avi-bali) to Ardhanarigal, and (c) feeding two
brahmanas at the temple, by Kurttan Kesuvan alias Agralekai,
the agent of Kidarattaraiyan. The donor is stated to have set up
and consecrated the image of Ardhanari(gal) (ARE 166 of
1956 - 57 )-
These precious gifts were made possibly at the behest of the
king of Sri Vijaya and Kadaram, Chulamanivarman, or his
successor Maravijayottungan, and in token of appreciation of the
extensive grants made by Rajaraja I in his twenty-first year to
the Chulamani Vihara alias Rajarajap-perumballi erected by
him at Nagapattinam. An interesting fact is the mention of
chinak-kanakarn (gold from China), indicative of close political
and maritime contact among the three kingdoms of China, the
Cholas and Sri Vijaya and Kadaram.
During the days of Rajadhiraja I, an image of Adavallan
was consecrated by Cholap-Pallavadaraiyan in the temple of
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
Tirukkaronam udaiyar (ARE 159 of 1956-57). There is only one
record of Rajendra IPs period, which registers some grant made
for food offerings on every Sunday. The donor of the Adavallan
image during the days of Rajadhiraja I is mentioned in this
connection and we gather that he bore the alternate name of
Madhurakaran; another chief mentioned is Rajendrasolap-
Pallavaraiyan (ARE 160 of 1956-57). There are no records
of the other Middle and Later Gholas till we come to the reign
of Rajaraja II. Found on the tiers of the mahamandapa is an
inscription dated in his tenth year which records a gift of 83
kasus for a perpetual lamp to god Tirukkaronamudaiyar at
Nagapattinam ( alias Solakulavalli-pattinam in Pattinak-kurram
in Geyamanikka valandau) by members of agambadi niyayangal
such as vettikkarar, agambadi, anukkavil and others (ARE 154 of
1 956-5 7). His successor has two inscriptions dated in his fifth
and tenth years respectively; the fifth year record registers an
agreement between the Sivabrahmanas of the temple and Ponnam-
balakkuttan Nadudaiyan, headman of Vallam in Palaiya Vallam
in Tiruvarur kurram, in respect of a perpetual lamp for which
the latter deposited 85 kasus with the former (ARE 153 of
1 956-57). The next record, of Rajadhiraja II, is about the gift
of 30 kasus for burning a lamp before god Dakshinamurti Devar
“who was pleased to be seated in the stone temple” of Tiruch-
chirrambalam Udaiyan, by a merchant at Kollapuram (modern
Kolhapur?) (ARE 155 of 1956-57).
Evidently, the shrine for Thyagaraja came into existence in
the years following the accession of Kulottuna III to the Chola
throne; we find a fourth year record of Tribhuvanachakravartigal
Virarajendra (Kulottunga III) which makes interesting reading
in this context. The transaction is recorded of a sale of land at
Nelvayal alais Kulottungasolanallur in Ala nadu belonging to
Mankondan Devandan of Alattur in lieu of 510 kalanjus of gold
which he owed to the tannattar. Mankondan Devandan was a
resident of the tirumadaivilagam of Kapalavani-Nayanar of Naga-
pattinam and originally owed 255 kalanjus to the tannattar of the
place. The debt was not repaid for a long time and when they
pressed him for the re-payment, Devandan delayed it further
I 14 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
as evidently he was not in a position to return the money. He
would appear to have come by a sizeable property on the death
of his elder brother, Mankondan Nayanar, out of which he paid
back the dues as settled by the tannattar at twice the original sum
(510 kalanjus), which he did by parting with a big chunk of the
inherited land, valued at 4,79,400 kasus. The deed of this transac-
tion was called “ iranakraya-pramana-isaivu-tittu We get an idea
of the ratio of kasu to kalanjus, viz., 4,79,400 kasus being equivalent
to 510 kalanjus (i.e. 910 kasu to a kalanju) in this period. Another
inscription records the sale deed relating to another piece of
land belonging to Mankondan Devandan, who, on the death
of his elder brother, inherited this and the piece of land mentioned
above (ARE 168 and 169 of 1956-57). In the fourteenth regnal
year of Kulottunga III, jewels made of gold and silver were given
as gift to the deities of Tirukkaronam Udaiyar and Alaga-vitanka-
Perumal by Malai-mel-amarndinar alias Vanavan Vilupparaiyan
of Marudamangalam (ARE 150 of 1956-57).
We have every reason to conclude that this temple at Naga-
pattinam was re-built in the early years of Rajaraja I and that
it received considerable attention from the representatives of the
king of Sri Vijaya and Kadaram in the years following the issue
of the Larger Leyden Grant, which placed the village of Anaiman-
galam at the disposal of the Buddhist vihara named after that king.
Evidently Nagapattinam was an important port of call for the
tradesmen from that kingdom and the vihara would have catered
to their religious needs. In view of its commercial and military
importance we get such names as Senamukham (cantonment)
and Madigai Ariyachchalai, and terms like agambadi niyayangal,
comprising several constituents such as vettaikkaravar, terinda-vil,
agambadi-anukka-vil, Rajarajan-velaikkarar , Senapatigal and Danda-
nayakam, all military terms describing various units, regiments
and commanders.
The temple faces east. The inner gopuram has three storeys
and the outer, five. Behind the Linga of Karohanar, there is a
sculpture of Somaskandar surrounded by rishis as we find at
Vijayalaya Cholisvaram at Vikkanampundi and Tiruvilimilalai.
The sculptures of the devakoshtas are Dakshinamurti in the south,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
115
Lingodbhavar in the west and Brahma, Ardhanarisvarar, Durgai
and Bhikshatanar in the north. There should have been an icon
of Ganapati in a southern niche. The Chandesvarar shrine is
situated in the north prakara close to the main shrine.
The Vitankar shrine lies to the south of the main shrine.
The Amman shrine should belong to the Later Chola period.
The present structure of the main shrine indicates renovation in
the days of Sembiyan Mahadevi. Among the bronzes, we may
mention the five-faced Herambha Ganapati riding a lion, a
Subrahmanyar figure with bow and arrow and a Nataraja a
dated bronze of the period of Rajadhiraja I (Pis 61 to 70).
NAGAPATTINAM
GHULAMANI VIHARA (BUDDHIST TEMPLE) 10
At the beginning of the eleventh century, when the Cholas
reached the apogee of their power and authority, there was inti-
mate cultural, religious and trade intercourse between the Cholas
and the Sailendras who ruled over the Malay peninsula and parts
of Indonesia. The Sailendra king Chulamanivarman embarked
on the construction of a “surpassingly beautiful shrine for the
Buddha” named after himself at the seaport of Nagapattinam.
This vihara , known as the “Chulamanivarman vihara” is
described in the Larger Leyden Grant as of a loftiness that
“belittled Kanakagiri (Mount Meru)”. The copper plate grant
mentions that in the twenty-first year, ninety-second day of his
reign (a.d. 1005), Rajaraja I gave to this vihara, which was com-
pleted by Chulamanivarman’s son “Maravijayottungavarman,
born in the Sailendra family, Lord of Sri Vishaya (Sri Vijaya)
and Kataha (Kadaram) who had the makara crest, at Naga-
pattinam in Pattinak-kurram included in the Kshatriya-sikha-
mani valanadu”, the village of Anaimangalam, comprising
in extent 97 and odd veils of land yielding an annual income of
8,943 and odd kalams of paddy. All the rights and privileges,
and also various types of taxes due to the king were granted in
perpetuity to the authorities of the palli as tax-free pallichchandam.
I 1 6 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
This deed was finally drawn up and presented to the Sangha on
the 1 63rd day of his twenty-third year.
“When Rajaraja I attained divinity,” so says the record,
“his son Madhurantaka (Rajendra I) ordered that the vihara
with its endowment last as long as the earth endures.”
It was a four-sided tower of three storeys which remained
for a long time as an important landmark on the coast of Naga-
pattinam. The Jesuits got it demolished in a.d. 1867 after ob-
taining permission from the Madras Government (see the picture
of the vihara in ruins as it appeared in a.d. 1846 — page 243 of
article no. 34, Epigraphia lndica, XXII, the Larger Leyden plates
of Rajaraja I; Also Indian Antiquary, VII).
In the Smaller Leyden Grant issued in the twentieth regnal
year of Kulottunga I (a.d. 1090), the Chulamani vihara gets
the alternate name of Rajarajap-perumpalli, now said to be located
at Solakulavalli-pattinam.
This grant mentions another palli here called Rajendrasolap-
perumpalli. For the benefit of these two pallis, Kulottunga I gave
the income of not only Anaimangalam but also eight other
villages round about it.
TIRUKKALAR
11 PARIJATAVANESVARAR TEMPLE
Tirukkalar is a village about 16 kms south-east of the taluk
headquarters of Mannargudi in the Tanjavur district and has one
of the oldest temples of Tamil nadu. The village has the alternate
name of Parijata-vanam and hence the name of Parijatavanes-
varar for the deity of the temple here. Sambandar has sung the
praise of the Lord who is also called Adaindaarkku Arul Seyda
Nayanar — He who blesses those who seek him. The deity is
also called Kalar-mulai-nathesvarar and the Amman is called
Alagesari Ammai. Parasara and Kalava munis are said to have
worshipped the Lord of the place. The Nataraja here is said to
have given darsana in His dancing stance to Durvasa muni. So
the sacred tank of the temple is called Durvasa tirtham.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
117
In the inscriptions, the place is called Vengurkala Tirukkalar
in Purangarambai nadu of Arumolideva valanadu, which in
the days of Kulottunga I gets renamed Rajendrasola valanadu.
The temple as it stands today is a sorry spectacle of uninformed
renovation where all the original inscriptions, fortunately copied
by the Madras Government in 1902, have been lost and some
stray slabs containing those inscriptions in fragments are now
seen fitted haphazardly into the northern wall of the Amman
shrine. The temple of Siva has now lost all its original character-
istics. The inscriptions copied in 1902, include those of Rajadhi-
raja I, Rajaraja II, Virarajendra and Kulottunga III, the Pandyan
kings Jatavarman Srivallabha and Maravarman Kulasekhara,
and the Vijayanagara rulers Viruppanna and Vira Bhupati.
What however is noteworthy about the temple today are the
fine sets of copper plates relating to certain grants made by
Rajendra I (eighteenth year), Rajadhiraja I (thirty-first year),
Kulottunga I (twenty-eighth year), Rajaraja II (eighteenth
year), and Kulottunga III (twenty-sixth year) dealing with
grants of land and vessels and the last about the list of gold and
silver jewels of the temple. There is also the fine set of metals found
in the temple relating to the Middle Chola period.* The Raja-
rajadeva copper plate makes an interesting point. It records that
some of the families of the donees ceased to have male members
and that in consequence a question arose as to how the feeding
pertaining to those families should be conducted in future; the
mahesvaras settled that the feeding, stipulated in the grant to be
done by the donees, devolved on the female descendants as well.
Arrangements were made by the families concerned in accord-
ance with the ruling of the mahesvaras (SII, III, Pt IV, 210).
Among the exquisite bronzes housed here are the Adip-pura
Amman (70 cm), Subrahmanyar (57 cm), Chandrasekharar
(73 cm), Tani Amman (54 cm), Sukhasana Amman (55 cm),
Chandesvarar (60 cm), Sundarar (50 cm), Manikkavachagar
(54 cm), Sambandar (50 cm), Appar (50 cm) and Nataraja and
*See Sewell’s Lists of Antiquities, Vol., I, p. 280; inscriptions 642 to 655 of the Madras
Epigraphical collection for 1902; also SII, III, Pt IV.
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
1 1 8
Amman (87 cm and 52 cm respectively). Most of them should
be attributed to the age of Rajaraja I (Pis 71-75).
TIRUKKARA VASAL
12 K ANN A Y I R A- NAT H A - S V A M I N TEMPLE
Tirukkaravasal, which in the ancient days was known as
Tirukkarayil, is about 13 kms south of Tiruvarur on the road
to Tirutturaippundi and is about five kms south-east of the rail-
way station of Tirunattiyattankudi.
It is one of the seven Vitanka centres ( Saptavitanka-kshetra ).*
Indra and Muchukunda Chakravarti are said to have worshipped
the Lord here. Hence the sacred tank to the north of the temple
is called “Indra-tirtham”.
The temple at Tirukkarayil is among the many from
which talip-pendir were deputed to the Rajarajesvaram temple
at Tanjavur and we are aware that it was in existence even as
early as the third regnal year of Rajaraja I. The temple was
completely renovated by the Nagarattars of Chettinad in the
recent past and the old features have been totally lost : the pil-
lars of the earlier structure have found their way to a grove
close by and a mutilated record of the third year of Rajakesari-
varman Mummudi Choladeva (Rajaraja I), found in one
of them, records a gift of land 35 ma in extent by the sabha for
a lamp to the temple called here that of the Mahadevar of
Tirukkarayil, a brahmadeya in Puliyur nadu (ARE 453 of 1908).
A twenty-seventh year record of the same ruler found in another
pillar in the same place records the construction of the olakka
mandapam (ARE 453 of 1908). A third record found on another
similar pillar is dated in the third regnal year of Rajendra I
and it refers to a gift of land for a lamp and for offerings to the
temple of Tirukkarayil Udaiyar (ARE 451 of 1908). On some
of the detached stones lying in the same grove is an incomplete
*The others are Tiruvarur, Tirukkuvalai, Tiruvoymur, Vedaranyam, Nagappattinam
and Nallur — also see Early Chola Temples , Tiruvarur, p.194.
temples of rajaraja i’s time
"9
record of the twenty-eighth year of Rajaraja III, relating to
a gift of land for feeding the persons who recited the Tirumurai
in the Tirukkaikkotti of the temple. This gift is made by the
residents of Muvur, a village in Puliyur nadu, a sub-division
of Arumolideva valanadu.
The practice of reciting the Tirumurai in the tirukkaikkotti
is corroborated by an inscription on the west wall of the first
prakara of the Villinathasvamin temple at Tiruvilimilalai where
from we learn that the Tirukkaikkotti there was constructed
during the Pandyan days for the purpose of the recitation
of the Tirumurai hymns (ARE 414 of 1908).
We are primarily concerned here with the exquisite bronzes
in the temple ascribable to the time of Rajaraja I. Among
them may be mentioned those of Somaskanda (100 and 80 cms)
Bhikshatanar (93 cms) and the Katchikodutta Nayanar (Ri-
shabhantikadevar) (100 cms) with Amman (80 cms) as also
Nataraja and His Consort. They are all in the grand style of
the ateliers of Rajaraja I’s days and deserve their place among
the class metals of the period (Pis 76 to 80) .
As regards the central shrine, which faces east, it is note-
worthy that the icon in the western niche of the srivimana is
Vishnu, the others being Dakshinamurti and Brahma. In the
ardhamandapa, Durga occupies the northern niche.
NARTTAMALAI
TIRUMALAIK-KADAMBUR TEMPLE 13
Narttamalai is a small village in the former princely state
of Pudukkottai till recently a division in the Tiruchirappalli
district and now reconstituted into a separate district called
Pudukkottai. It lies about 4 kms (2$ miles) from the railway station
of the same name on the Tiruchi-Manamadurai chord line of
the Southern Railway.
The place is of great antiquity. Its modern name, Nartta-
malai, is a corruption of Nagarattar-malai, the hillside abode
of a merchant-guild which was a branch of a larger commercial
120
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
corporation called the “JVanadesis”, which carried on extensive
trade not only in different parts of India but also with lands
beyond the seas, especially in South-East Asia.
In inscriptions of the eleventh century a.d., the place was
called Telunga-kula-kala-puram; and, in the thirteenth
century, by the name of Kulottunga Cholap-pattinam (after
Kulottunga III).
A chain of eight hillocks encircles the village, and the valley
below presents an enchanting view. Today, the place is famous
for its Mariyamman temple, which receives the homage of the
people over a wide area beyond the limits of the village. But
in the past, it was known for a number of other splendid monu-
ments, on one of the eight hillocks, called Melamalai, two of
them being rock-cut cave temples. From local inscriptions, we
learn that there were also structural stone temples. The ear-
liest of these is the Vijayalaya Cholisvaram, the oldest of the
Chola temples in Tamil Nadu (See Early Chola Art, Part I).
Among other structural temples the most important is the
Melaik-Kadambur temple (also known as the Tirumalaik-
Kadambur Isvaram) of the days of Rajaraja I.
The temple has a portion of the rock itself for its northern
wall. The earliest inscription relating to it dates to the twenty-
second year of Rajaraja I (a.d. 1007) and is inscribed on the
rock forming the northern wall. In it, the presiding deity is
called Malaik-kadambur Devar. Considering the style of the
architecture, we can affirm that the date of erection of the
temple could not have been far removed from that of this in-
scription. The inscriptions in this temple range over the entire
Chola period. In an inscription of the twenty-eighth year of
Rajaraja I found on the rock surface east of the temple, there
is mention of a gift of land for five drummers ( uvachchar kottu )
by the “ nagaram of Telungakulakalapuram in Annalvaiyil
kurram (i.e., Konadu) in Keralantaka valanadu” [Inscrip-
tions (Text), Pudukkottai State, no. gi]. There are a few inscrip-
tions of the period of Rajendrall; one of his fifth year found
on a rock north of the Mangala-tirtha tank in front of the temple,
beginning with the introduction tiru-madu puvi-enum refers to
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
I 2 1
an agreement to which the nagaram is a party (no. 112, ibid).
Another of the same year, beginning with the introduction tiru-
maruviya sengol, mentions a gift for the supply of five pots of
water each, for the three services for the sacred bath of the Lord
(no. 1 13, ibid.). After a big gap of a century and more, we get
records of Kulottunga III relating to his 27th, 31st, 37th and
38th years (nos. 158, 170, 173, ibid.). The first of them gives
the deity the name of Sri Kailasam Udaiya Nayanar and from
the next, we come to know of the existence of the Palliyarai ^
Nachchiyar, mentioned already, for whom a gift of five kalan-
jus of gold for food offerings was made; the third record of his
thirty-seventh year relates to a gift of land as devadana , which
was bought for 8,000 kalanjus. It also refers to a gift to the
Kuttadum Devar (Nataraja) in the temple of Tirumalaik-
Kadambur Nayanar; the names of Sri Kailasamudaiya Nayanar
and Tiru-Anaikka-Udaiya Nayanar occur. The setting up of
the image of Dakshinamurti for whom a provision for food
offerings is made, is noticed from his 38th year record (a.d.
1216).
From a record of Rajendra III, the last of the Chola rulers,
relating to his seventh year, we get to know of a temple artisan
(i tachcha-acharyan ) and his father whose services ( tiruppanigal )
to the following shrines are referred to: (i) Nayanar koyil
(Tirumalaikkadambur), (ii) Tiru-Anaikka-Udaiya Nayanar tem-
ple and (Hi) Nachchiyar tirukkoyil.
The central shrine built of stone is simple and imposing.
The garbhagriha is a plain structure of well-dressed stones, show-
ing great artistic skill; on the outer walls of the garbhagriha,
there are niches for subsidiary deities. The pillars and pilasters
have the usual features of temples of the days of Rajaraja I.
Above the cornice and below the griva, there is a continuous
frieze of yalis. At the four corners of the griva, there are four
niches for deities, surmounted by simha-lalatams. The sikhara
of the srivimana is bell-shaped; further up, over a base of
lotus petals, stands the stone stupi (See my Four Chola
Temples).
The temple has an air of simple grandeur, with its back-
lA— -f
122
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
ground of hills and beautiful natural scenery. It belongs to the
age of Rajaraja I.*
TIRUNEDUNGALAM
NITYASUNDARESVARA-SVAMIN
14 (TIRU-NEDUNGALANATHASVAMIN) TEMPLE
Tirunedungalam is now a village 3J kms west of the Sola-
gampatti railway station, 11.3 kms east of the railway station
of Tiruverumbur, a few kilometres off the industrial establish-
ment of Bharat Heavy Electricals, close to the village of Tuvak-
kudi from which there runs a branch road in the north-east
direction to connect it to the temple.
This temple, of great antiquity, is included in the Kshetra-
Venba of the Tamil Saint, the Pallava Ayyadigal Kadavarkon,
who should be ascribed to the days before Appar and Sambandar.
This temple was visited by Sambandar, who has a hymn of eleven
stanzas on the Lord of Nedungalam. He sings of the Lord as
the one who destroyed Yama to save his devotee, who held
Himavan’s daughter on his left and exhibited himself as Ardha-
narisvarar, who destroyed the Tripura Asuras, who humbled
*South of the main shrine, a separate shrine for the Goddess called Tiruk-kamak-kottam-
udaiya Nachchiyar was set up and consecrated, along with a wall of enclosure ( tirumaligai ),
in a.d. 1228. By this time the region had passed from the control of the Cholas to that of the
Pandyan ruler Maravarman Sundara Pandya I.
About the same time, two other Siva temples, called those of Tiruvanaikka-udaiya-nayanar
and Nagarisvaram-udaiya-nayanar came to be built and consecrated.
■(•Tirunedungalam is wrongly described as below in the List (Index) of inscriptions copied
up to 31.3.1938 and published by the Government Epigraphist for India in 1941, p.90 :
Trichinopoly district,
Lalgudy taluk;
Tirunedungulam — hamlet of Mannachchanallur , Nos.664-697 of 1909.
Tirunedungalam (sometimes called Tirunedungulam) is in Tiruchy taluk and not in
Lalgudy taluk.
Mannachchanallur is west of Tiruchy town while Tirunedungalam lies east of Tiruchy and so
it cannot be a hamlet of Mannachchanallur. After a long search and fruitless enquiry, I found
the information incorrect. Then I got the facts confirmed by the Office of the Government
Epigraphist, Mysore.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
123
Ravana, who stood as a pillar of fire to establish his supremacy
over Vishnu and Brahma and who worked for the overthrow
of the heretical Buddhists and Jains. In his days, this temple
should have been built of brick.
There is evidence of the existence of this temple during the
Early Chola period, in fact even during the period of Vijaya-
laya, the founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjavur. There is
however no Chola inscription on the walls of this temple. But
a later stone inscription — an unspecified king with the title of
Tribhuvanachakravartin Konerinmaikondan (thirteenth century
a.d. ?)— on the south wall of the mandapa in front of the
central shrine records a gift of land to this temple, in accord-
ance with “an earlier charter of Parakesarivarman Vijayalaya”
(ARE 675 of 1909). This clearly establishes the existence of this
temple during the period of Vijayalaya and the grant of land for
sendees to this Lord. Neither the original grant nor its full parti-
culars are now forthcoming. If available, this would have been
the earliest of Chola charters, earlier than the Anbil Plates
of Sundara Chola.
The temple faces east and consists of a central shrine, an
antarala with dvarapalas at its entrance. Further up, there is the
snapana-mandapa ; it has a window in the south and is adorned
at its entrance with another set of dvarapalas. The bronzes be-
longing to this temple are on a platform in the north side of this
mandapa.
In this mandapa , near the snap ana-pi tha, there are two Nandis,
one of stone and another of brass. Further up, there is the ranga-
mandapa on whose southern side there is the Somaskanda shrine
guarded by Ganapati and Subrahmanyar serving as dvarapalas.
The central shrine has a covered verandah running all
round its three sides (tiru-nadai-maligai) . On the walls of the cen-
tral shrine, there are three Vijayanagara inscriptions — one
of Immadi Tammayadeva Maharaja, dated Saka 1422 (a.d. 1500)
and the others of Viruppanna Udaiyar and Mallikaraya.
All these Vijayanagara inscriptions (ARE 664, 665 and 666 of
1909) must have been engraved after the rebuilding of the central
shrine of the Early Chola temple, sometime in the 15th century
124
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
a.d. It may be added that on the south wall of the mandapa
in front of the central shrine, there is an inscription of one Vijaya
Narayana Udaiyar, son of Bhupati Udaiyar (son of Bukka II ?)
which records that in Saka 1334 (a.d. 1412) a gift of land, a
house, and the permanent right of repairing the temple pre-
mises was made to an architect-cum-engineer who repaired
the temple at his own expense (serving in an honorary capacity).
Perhaps it was he and his associates who renovated the Early
Chola temple in the fifteenth century (ARE 676 of 1909).
In this connection, reference may be made to a fragmentary
inscription, on slabs of stone built into the wall of the mandapa
in front of the main shrine, of a certain Rajakesarivarman (Chola
king) in association with his Pandya contemporary Varaguna
(acc. a.d. 862). This Rajakesarivarman should be identified
with Aditva I. Another fragment contains the name of Madurai-
konda Parakesari (Parantaka I). This fragment should have
belonged to the old temple of the Early Chola period. More-
over, there are no devakoshtas on the walls of the renovated temple.
The devakoshta sculpture of Dakshinamurti of the earlier temple
is now placed in a newly built shrine in front of the original
position for this deity on the southern side, and the icon of Ardha-
narisvarar of the original shrine (of Aditya I’s age) is placed
on the western side on the floor of the tiru-nadai-maligai. There
is a sculpture of Durga on the northern outer wall of the snapana-
mandapa, close to a JSfavagraha panel housed in a mandapa supported
by lion pillars.
Thus there is the likelihood of the old brick temple having
been rebuilt of stone in the days of Aditya I. This again was
radically altered and rebuilt in the fifteenth century a.d.
There are two inscriptions on the walls of the Somaskanda
shrine. The one of the south wall (ARE 692 of 1909) dated
Saka 1386 (a.d. 1464) mentions that one Arasan Vallala Devan of
Mulukkudi built the ranga mandapa (in which the Somaskanda
icon was housed) and made a gift of lands and a house for
offerings to the shrine of Kulandai Nayakar (Somaskanda ?).
The other on the west wall dated Saka 1425 (a.d. 1503)
refers to a gift of land by a samanta for repairs, offerings and
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
J 25
festivals to the temple of Tirunedumangalam-udaiya Tambiran
(also called Nilasolaivanam-udaiya Nayanar) . The central shrine
might have been renovated about this time.
There are a number of Chola and Pandya inscriptions on the
south wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine. One
of them is a damaged inscription of the sixth regnal year of
Karikala Chola (ARE 672 of 1909). It records a gift of land
to the temple of Nedungalattur Mahadevar by a native of Kalli-
kudi (near Golden Rock, Tiruchy). This mandapa seems to be
original, unlike the central shrine.
There are two old shrines of the ashta-parivara-alayam, those
of Ganesa and Chandesvarar.
Ganesa shrine
There are three inscriptions of a certain Parakesarivarman,
on the walls of the Ganesa shrine housing a Valampuri Ganesa
sculpture, which may be assigned to the period of Madhurantaka
Uttama Chola. One, of his thirteenth year (ARE 690 of 1909)
records a gift of land by a private individual for the supply of
paddy for offerings to the temple of Kayilayattu Mahadevar
(the deity of the central shrine ?). Another record of the for-
teenth year (south wall, ARE 684 of 1909) mentions the gift
of ghee for the purification ceremony ( Agnikaryam ) in the temple
for the merit of Sembiyan Muvendavelan of Vada-Puraiyur
nadu who had the title of Uttama Sola-Brahmadhirajakanmi.
On the walls of this shrine, there are eight inscriptions of
a Rajakesarivarman, which have to be assigned to Rajaraja I.
On the south wall of the shrine, there is an inscription whose
date is expressed as “three in figures and six in words” (ARE
682 of 1909). We are not sure about its exact date. It records
that an image called Lokasundarar was set up in the temple
of Tirunedungalattu-alvar in Kavira nadu by a native of Orriyur.
It mentions also a gift of land for offerings. This deity may be
either Chandrasekharar or Tripurantakar. There is an inscription
of the eighth year of a Rajakesarivarman on the south wall
(ARE 683 of 1909) which relates to a gift of land to a native of
Suralur by the mahesvaras, the temple servants and the residents
126
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
of Tirunedungalam. The object of the grant is not clear. Another
record of the same year on the west wall (ARE 688 of 1909)
refers to a gift of land by the assembly of Tirunedungalam to a
person who agreed to provide 220 kalams of paddy to the temple
for offerings from the tenth year (described as the year, opposite
to the year, opposite to the eighth year, 8 + 1 — 1 = 10) onwards. An
inscription of the ninth regnal year found on the east wall
(ARE 681 of 1909) mentions a gift of 61 cows for the supply of
panchagavyam (five products of the cow used for religious cere-
monies) and for burning lamps and incense before the Mahadevar
of Tirunedungalam, a devadana in Kavira nadu. In the same
year, there is an inscription (ARE 687 of 1909) which records
a gift of land made by a native of Orriyur for feeding 550
Sivayogins during the festival of seven days in Masi and Chittirai
(by supplying 30 kalams of paddy by the local standard
measure). A tenth year inscription found on the south wall
(ARE 685 of 1909) records a gift of gold for a lamp to the
Pillaiyar-Ganapati installed in this shrine, by a certain Kolam-
banachchan of Idaikkudi. Another inscription of the same year
(ARE 686 of 1909) records a gift of 20 kalams of paddy for
offerings. One Kamban Maniyan alias Vikramasinga Muven-
davelan made, in the fourteenth regnal year, a gift of a gold
ornament and a copper-tipped mattali (drum) for the sribali
service in the temple (ARE 691 of 1909). Incidentally, it may
be mentioned that the same Chief got an emerald image ( mara -
kata devar) from the king Rajaraja I out of the booty taken in
the Malai Nadu campaign and consecrated it in the Apat-
sahayesvarar temple at Tiruppalanam in Tanjavur district
(ARE 135 of 1927-28). Evidently he was an important local
Chief and possibly assisted Rajaraja I in the campaign in Malai
Nadu (Kerala region). After an interval of nearly two centuries
(some inscriptions of this intervening period might have suffered
destruction at the time of the reconstruction of this temple in
the fifteenth century a.d.), there are two inscriptions of the thirty-
second regnal year of Tribhuvana-Chakravartin Tribhuvana
Vira Deva (i.e., Kulottunga III). One records a gift of land
(ARE 674 of 1909) and the other (ARE 670 of 1909) records
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
127
also a gift of land to this temple by one Tillai-Tiru-Nattap-peru-
mal alias Vijayalaya Muttaraiyan of Valambakkudi - note the
persistent association of the name of Vijayalaya with this place
and temple. The same donor figures also in an inscription of the
fourth regnal year of Rajaraja III (Chandesvarar shrine; ARE
679 of 1909). It records that a Linga was set up in the first prakara
of the temple of Tirunedungalam Udaiyar in the name of Ulaga-
nadisvaram Udaiyar for the merit of Tillai-Tiru-Nattap-perumal
alias Vijayalaya Muttaraiyan of Valambakkudi by one of his
sons, Anapaya Muttaraiyan. West of the temple well and the
Chandesvarar shrine in the first prakara of this temple, there
is a later Linga shrine now called the Agastyesvaram. It seems
very probable that the Ulaganadisvaram shrine might have
been named Agastyesvaram in recent times. This surmise seems
to get support from the fact that the Agastyesvaram shrine is
close to the Chandesvarar shrine on whose wall is found the
inscription of the days of Rajaraja III, which mentions the
consecration of the new Linga shrine (ARE 679 of 1909).
On the east wall of the Chandesvarar shrine, there is another
inscription of the fourth year of Rajaraja III (ARE 678 of 1909).
It records the sale of land by some members of the assembly
of Tirunedungalam which got the alternate name of Thyagavalli-
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya in Vada Kavira nadu, a sub-
division of Pandyakulasani valanadu, evidently for some service
to the local deity. This is the last Chola inscription in this temple.
The interior of the garbhagriha is octagonal. The temple is
eka-tala; its sikhara too is octagonal.
Sculptures of Jyeshtha devi and two sets of Saptamatrikas
are placed in the south-west portion of the tiruch-churru-maligai.
Stone images of Kshetrapalar and Surya are found in the eastern
verandah of the first prakara. A Bhairavar shrine is located close
to the main entrance to the first prakara. The temple has a stone
mortar and there is also a brass horse. The gateway of the first
prakara has a three-storeyed gopuram.
The bronzes housed in the temple are of Ganesa, big and
small, Subrahmanyar and His Consorts, Chandesvarar, Pradosha-
murti, Manikkavasagar, Nataraja and Sivakami, two sets of
128
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Pidari, Ghandrasekharar, Tani- Amman and Somaskanda, which
was perhaps housed in the Somaskanda shrine.
The later Amman shrine of Mangalambika (or Oppilla
Nayaki) is on the north side of the second prakara. It faces south.
The second prakara is entered by a gateway which has no super-
structure.
Further east is the sacred tank of the temple. This is a very
ancient and celebrated temple sung by Ayyadigal Kadavarkon
and Sambandar. The temple should have been a brick structure
in the Early Chola age. Vijayalaya had made a grant of land
to the deity. In the days of Aditya I, it should have been rebuilt
of stone. The western devakoshta sculpture of Ardhanarisvarar
reinforces this supposition as to its age. The central shrine was
rebuilt in the fifteenth century a.d. A lot of Chola inscriptions
must have been destroyed during this renovation (Pis 81-90).
The temple has enjoyed the homage of the devotees from the
latter half of thesixth century down to the eighteenth century a.d.,
as evidenced by its lithic records covering Chola, Hoysala, Pandya,
Vijayanagara and Madurai Nayaka periods. It is still in active
worship.
TIRUMANGALAM
SAMAVEDISVARAR (PARASURAMISVARAR)
15 TEMPLE
The village of Tirumangalam is in Lalgudy taluk of Tiruchy
district and is reached by turning left at the 15th km stone from
Tiruchy on the Tiruchy-Chidambaram road. From the main
road, the village is about 4 kms and is reached by a tortuous
country road.
The main temple of the village is dedicated to Samavedisvarar
and the Amman is Loganayaki. The temple is a very old one
dating back to the days of Rajaraja I or even Aditya I.
It is associated with Parasurama who according to local
tradition worshipped the Lord of this place and obtained his
axe ( parasu ); hence the deity is known in inscriptions as Para-
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
129
suramisvarar. One of the 63 saints, Aanaaya Nayanar of the
Aayar kulam lived here and he was a great devotee of the Lord of
of this place; he played devotional songs on the flute enchanting
man and beast and even the Lord himself. Tradition has it that
he attained beatitude even as he was playing on the flute. There
is in the temple a rather late representation in stone of this
Nayanar playing on the flute under a tree, reminiscent of the
story of Krishna playing on the flute. A modern metal on this
theme is now under worship in a small cella to the south of the
entrance to the mandapa of the temple.
The earliest inscriptions found on the walls of this temple
relate to the fifth year of the reign of Rajaraja I. On the south
wall of the central shrine, there is a record of Rajarajakesarivar-
man which mentions a gift of gold by a certain Karuvur Kandali,
the headman ( pattinam kilan) of Nagapattinam in Pattina kurram
for a twilight lamp in the temple which is called that of Para-
suramisvara Mahadevar (ARE 250 of 1929-30). The other one
which is also of the same year but is fragmentary, mentions the
temple of Parasuramisvarattu-Mahadevar at Tirumangalam.
Below this record there is another in similar characters dated in
the fifteenth year (the name of the king is lost referring to a certain
Kalavan Nandis varan Sankaranarayanan of the village (ARE
248 of 1929-30). In an inscription of the fifteenth year of Raja-
raja I found on the same wall, a gift is made of land by purchase,
made tax-free, to the temple of Parasuramesvarar at Tiruman-
galam which is described as a brahmadeya in Meegooru of Kilaar
kurram, a sub-division of Vadagarai Malanadu, by Parantakan
Mahadevadigal alias Sembiyan Mahadeviyar, the mother of
Uttama Chola for a perpetual lamp in the temple and for special
sacred bath of the deity on certain specified days of the year
(ARE 251 of 1929-30). There is an unfinished record of the
thirtieth regnal year of Rajendra I found on the west wall of
the central shrine, which registers an assignment of tax-free land
by the assembly of Damodara-mangalam, a brahmadeya in Kalaar
kurram, a sub-division of Rajasraya valanadu, to the temple
of Parasuramisvaram Udaiya Paramesvarar of Tirumangalam,
for offerings to the god Chandrasekhara devar and for a twilight
I30 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
lamp in the temple in return for 20 kasus received by them. It
also made provision for offerings to the God and Adavallar in
the temple on certain specified days and for feeding devotees
in the Paranjyoti matha on festival days by the uravar of Nagar
in Kalaar kurram (there is a village by the name of Nagar even
today about a kilometre from the village of Tirumangalam)
(ARE 246 of 1929-30). An incomplete inscription of the days
of Rajendra I records a gift of land to the temple by the assembly
of Tirumangalam and it provided for the sacred bath of the
deity for seven days from Revati in the month of Margali (ARE
249 of 1929-30). On the west and south walls of the central
shrine there is a third year record of Rajakesarivarman Vira
Rajendra mentioning that the servants of the temple of Parasura-
misvaram Udaiya Mahadevar at Tirumangalam, a brahmadeyam
in Kalaar kurram, a sub-division of Rajasrava valanadu, agreed
to burn a perpetual lamp in the temple, in return for the cows
received by them from a certain Sembiyan Mulaiyurnattu Muven-
davelan of Karukkangudi (ARE 247 of 1929-30) There are a
number of later inscriptions.*
* Later Inscriptions : The rest of the records belong to the Later Chola period. In an inscrip-
tion on the north wall of the central shrine, relating to the 17th regnal year of Kulottunga I,
mention is made of the assembly of Tirumangalam meeting in the temple of Tiruvaiyotti-
yalvar in the village and transacting a sale of land to the temple (ARE 244 of 1929-30). In a
46th year inscription of the same ruler, there is a record referring to a sale of land made tax free
to the temple of Parasuramesvaram Udaiya Mahadevar by the assembly of Tirumangalam
which met in the temple of Tiruvaiyottiyalvar (Rama). Here Kalaar kurram becomes a part
of Ulagamulududai valanadu (ARE 252 of 1929-30). Later in Vikrama Chola’s days the
valanadu is renamed Tribhuvanamulududai valanadu and a gift of land by purchase is
made to the temple as arclianabhoga in the 14th year of this ruler (ARE 254 of 1929-30). In the
days of Rajaraja II, certain residents of Tirumangalam in Kalaar kurram, said to be then in
Ulagudai Mukkokkilanadi valanadu, sold a piece of land to the temple and also gifted another
piece close by (ARE 243 of 1929-30). From an inscription dated in the sixth year of Rajadhiraja
deva II, we get another name of the deity of the temple here; the Sivabrahmanas of the temple
of Tiru-maluvudaiya Mahadevar received gold from a certain Atreyan Narayanan Yajna Bhattan
and agreed to conduct some special worship on the new moon days (ARE 253 of 1929-30).
From the only record of Tribhuvanachakravartin Rajarajadeva who should be identified
with Rajaraja III, we get to know that one Ambalattaduvan Siramadevan alias Kalingarayan
of Chandralekhai in Eyil nadu, a subdivision of Tenkarai Pandikulasani valanadu made a
gift of land for offerings to the image of the Goddess Ulagudaiya Nayaki set up by him in the
temple of Tirumaluvudaiya Nayanar at Tirumangalam, a brahmadeyam in Kalaar kurram in Vada-
garai Rajaraja valanadu. Thus the Amman shrine in the temple came into being by about
the year 1238 A.D. In fact, even today, the Amman retains Her original name with only a
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 1 3 1
The temple is in a good state of preservation and the inscrip-
tions and sculptures have not been ruined by the unholy hand
of the modern renovator. It faces east. The garbhagriha measures
a square of 5.85 ms to a side while the ardhamandapa projects
4.20 ms forward measuring 5.10 ms across. There is a mukhaman-
dapa in front which also serves as the snapana mandapa, measuring
8.45 ms along the axis of the temple and 8.40 ms across. There
are four finely carved pillars in the ardhamandapa while the mukha-
mandapa has the support of four pillars of a different design.
The devakoshta figures require special attention. On the walls
of the garbhagriha, there are the usual images of Brahma in the
north and Dakshinamurti in the south ; but in the rear (west)
devakoshta, the image of Hariharar (Sankaranarayanar) is found,
reminiscent of the temples of the days of Aditya I like Tiruverum-
bur, Pachil Amalisvaram (Gopurapatti) and others ; even in the
koshtas of the ardhamandapa, the striking feature is the presence
of a Bhikshatanar figure in the south koshta where usually the
image of Ganapati is found. We have noticed elsewhere that this
feature is peculiar to the temples of the period of Aditya I. Both
at Tiruvamattur [Early Chola Temples, p. 222) and at Viralur
[Early Chola Art Part I, p. 56), Bhikshatanar occupies positions
which it does not occupy in later periods (Pis 91-99).
On these grounds it seems reasonable to infer that the temple
was built in the days of Aditya I himself though epigraphs are
found only from the fifth regnal year of Rajaraja I onwards.
Another interesting feature of this temple is the presence of a
series of three groups of sculpture panels in miniature correspond-
ing to each pilaster ; one series is below the adhishthanam, in the
upapitham ; the second group is found between the varimanam
and the vari and the third is over the vari, all the miniatures placed
along the alignment of the pilasters on the walls of the garbha-
griha and the ardhamandapa ; there are as many as 84 of them
minor variation, Loga Nayaki. The last record to be found in the temple relates to the Madhurai
Nayaka days and is dated in Saka 1488 during the rule of Visvanatha Krishnappa Nayaka.
The temple is now said to be located at TiruvirundamangalaTn in Kalaar kurram, a division of
Kilapalaru in Rajaraja valanadu and a remission of water cess ( niraanikkam ) on the lands
belonging to the temple is made for the merit of the king (ARE 255 of i 9 2 9 _ 3 0 )*
132
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
though some of them in the south have been built into the floor.
They depict scenes from the Puranas.
There are no separate shrines for the ashta-parivara devatas ,
but Subrahmanyar, Ganapati and Gajalakshmi (the latter is
modern) are found in cellas in the rear portion of the tiruch-churru-
maligai.
The temple is dvi-tala , the griva and the sikhara are octagonal.
There are some fine metallic images, particularly of Soma-
skandar, Tani- Amman and Chandrasekharar. Nataraja, found
in a separate shrine in the north-eastern part of the temple, is
datable to Rajendra I’s days (the Adavallar referred to in ARE,
246 of 1929-30). Similarly the Chandrasekhara devar image
(the Pradoshamurti) could be attributed to the same period.
MADAGADIPATTU
16 KUNDANKULI MAHADEVAR KOYIL
The village of Madagadipattu lies about 24 kms from Pondi-
cherry on the road to Villupuram. A few metres to the south of
the main road, there is a tank and on its western bund is a vener-
able temple called Kundankuli Mahadevar koyil. It was in a
very dilapidated condition and P. Z. Pattabhiramin got the
temple renovated on scientific lines.*
It is an eka-tala stone temple ( karrali ). The garbhagriha rests
on a high adhishthanam with many mouldings consisting of upanam,
padmam,jagati and kumudam. The kapotam is decorated with kudus.
There are only three devakoshtas in the garbhagriha and perhaps
they had Dakshinamurti (?), Vishnu and Brahma. The French
Institute of Indology, Pondicherry have preserved some of the
images of this temple in their Museum. Among them are the
fine figures of Ganapati and Durga (Pis 1 00-105).
There is an ardhamandapa in front ; the garbhagriha is surmount-
ed by the kodungai ( kapota ). The circular griva has devakoshtas,
*A detailed account of this temple will be found in the “Quatre Vicux Temples” by P.Z
Pattabhiramin.
Revue Historique De L’ Inde Francaise, Pondicherry, 1948.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
133
and vimana-devatas are installed in each of them; each devakoshta
has a finely wrought kudu ; the bell -shaped sikhara and the circular
stupi are finely turned out.
There are a few weather-beaten and fragmentary inscriptions ;
from one of these we learn that this temple was raised by Raja-
raja I. It reads as follows : “Sri Rajaraja devar eduppit-tarulina
tiru-karraii” — “the stone temple raised by Sri Rajaraja devar” ;
and Puri Bhattan is mentioned as the builder of this temple.
The reading of the rest of the inscription is doubtful ; however,
the name of the Lord of the temple could be gathered from it,
which runs as follows : “Tiruk - Kundan - Kulach - C fieri Olukarai
Mahadevan ”. The shape of the sikhara bears resemblance to those
of Narttamalai, Arinjigai Isvaram of Melpadi and others all of
which are of the days of Rajaraja I.
MARAKKANAM
BHUMISVARAR TEMPLE 17
Marakkanam is now a small village on the eastern sea-coast
about 37 kms (23 miles) east of Tindivanam, the taluk head-
quarters and a railway station in South Arcot district. Some
other important centres close by are Alattur, Olagapuram and
Perumukkal.
Around the beginning of the Christian era, it was one of
the important sea-ports of the Indian peninsula. The Siru-pan-
arruppadai, one of the ten Sangam anthologies, together called the
Pattuppattu , mentions Eyirppattinam as one of the three important
fortified cities in Oyma nadu, the region between modern Tindi-
vanam and Marakkanam, ruled by the hero of the idyll, Nalli-
yakodan, whose honour and glory was sung by the poet Nallur
Nattattanar. In his The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a guide-book
by an anonymous Alexandrian (Greek) merchant written about
the first century a.d., the author mentions that on the east coast
of South India, there were three market towns and harbours —
Camara, Produca and Sopatna. It has been accepted that Camara
can be identified with Kaberis of Ptolemy, i.e., Kaverippattinam
i34
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
(or Pumpuhar) the ancient Chola capital of the Tamil Sangam
period and that Produca or Poduka of Ptolemy may be identified
with Puducherry. Next we have Sopatma or Sopatna, which
may be equated with Eyirp-patnam (pattinam), the modern
Marakkanam (see my article in the Quarterly Journal of the
Mythic Society, XXI, 4, 1 93 1) .
There is a fine temple in this village, dedicated to Bhumis-
varar ; it is in a state of good repair and is of considerable interest
to the student of art. We do not have any foundation inscription
in this temple nor is it among those sung by the Nayanmars.
There are, however, inscriptions of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
which throw considerable light on the temple. A record of the
sixteenth year of Rajaraja I refers to a gift of a lamp to Bhum-
isvara-nathar at Rajaraja-Peralam in Manakkanam, in Pattina
nadu, a subdivision of Oyma nadu (ARE 23 of 1919). A seven-
teenth year inscription mentions that an officer of Arasur, while
stationed at Pattinam, regulated the expenditure of the temple
of Bhumisvaradevar (ARE 28 of 1919).
In the fourth year of Parakesarivarman Rajendra I (a. d. 1016)
a gift was made of taxes due on a salt pan, for two lamps to be
burnt in the Bhumisvaram Udaiyar temple at Manakkanam
alias Rajaraja-Peralam (ARE 24 of 1919). In a record of the eighth
year of this ruler (a.d. 1020), a gift was made of sheep and money
for a lamp and offerings to Bhumisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar
at Pattinam (ARE 29 of 1919).
There is one record of Rajakesari Sri Vijaya Rajendra (Raja-
dhiraja I) dated in his thirty-fifth year (a.d. 1053) referring to
a sale of land for a flower garden to this temple by the sabha
of Eyirppattinam in Pattina nadu, in Tambittunai-Chola
valanadu in Jayangondasola mandalam (ARE 30 of 1919).
A gift of land to this temple at Eyirppattinam alias Vikramasola
chaturvedimangalam is mentioned in a fourth year inscription
of Rajakesarivarman Kulottunga II (a.d. 1137). Evidently
the village was renamed after the king in the days of his father
Vikrama Chola (ARE 26 of 1919). A record of the sixteenth
year of Kulottunga III is also found in this temple (ARE 33
of 1919).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 1 35
There are inscriptions of the days of the Vijayanagara rulers
also. In Saka 1421 (a.d. 1499), Marakkanam bore the alternate
name of Gandaraditta-nallur in Pattina nadu, a sub-division of
Oyma nadu alias Vijaya-Rajendrasola valanadu in Jayangonda-
sola mandalam.
From these inscriptions, we get a variety of names for this
sea-port in ancient days.
(i) Rajaraja-Peralam alias Manakkanam, in Pattina nadu,
a subdivision of Oyma nadu.
(ii) Pattinam in Pattina nadu, a part of Oyma nadu,
(Hi) Eyirppattinam in Pattina nadu, in Tambittunai-chola
valanadu, a sub-division of Jayangondasola mandalam.
( iv ) Eyirppattinam alias Vikramasola-chaturvedimangalam,
and
(v) Marakkanam alias Gandaraditta-nallur in Pattina nadu
in Oyma nadu alias Vijaya-Rajendrasola valanadu, a sub-division
of Jayangondasola mandalam.
Therefore, it is clear that the modern town of Marakkanam
was originally known as Manakkanam, Pattinam and Eyirp-
pattinam, that it was on the sea-coast, that it was a flourishing
salt-producing centre and that the affairs of the town were
managed by a sab ha. As it is called Eyirppattinam, it should have
been a fortified sea-port (Eyil = wall of fortification).
The temple, facing east, consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala,
an ardhamandapa and a mukhamandapa. The garbhagriha is square
5.66 ms (18' 7") to the side with rather plain walls on the sides
with a single niche in the centre and relieved by six pilasters
including the corner ones. The niche figures are Dakshina-
murti in the south, Vishnu in the west and Brahma in the north.
The outer walls of the ardhamandapa contain niches in which
Bhikshatanar is found in the south and Durga in the north. Among
the devakoshta figures, Bhikshatanar, Dakshinamurti, Vishnu
and Durga are original sculptures and are of excellent work-
manship. Brahma seems to be of a later period. Over each deva-
koshta in the garbhagriha are found miniature figures of nandi
in the south, simha in the west and hamsa in the north — being
the mounts of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma respectively.
136
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The srivimana is in two tiers. The cornice in the first tier has a
bhutagana frieze below and a yali frieze above it : the entablature
in the first tier is decorated with four karna-kutas in the four
corners and salas in the centre of each side. We have dik-palas
on the kutas : Yama is in the nidha on the south. The second
tala is, however, plain, with a cornice framing its top, above
which runs a hamsa frieze ; the four corners are adorned with
nandis. The griva is eight-sided with four niches in the four cardinal
directions, the intervening space between the niches being covered
with stucco sculptures. In the sala niches in the first tier as well
as in the griva niches, the figures on the garbhagriha side-walls
are repeated. While in the south wall the three figures are of
Dakshinamurti, the figures in the north are : garbhagriha niche :
Brahma ; sala niche : a Devi (probably Nisumbhasudani) ;
griva niche : seated Brahma. In the west, there is Vishnu in the
wall niche, Lakshmi-Narasimha in the sala niche, and Lakshmi
in the griva niche. In the eastern griva, the image is that of
Subrahmanyar. The sikhara which also has eight sides is of brick.
There is a low-plinth pillared verandah ( tiruch-churru-maligai )
running all along the four sides of the central shrine.
On the south-west corner of the verandah, there are beautiful
bronzes of Somaskandar and Tani Amman. The former with
the padma-pitham measures .70 m (27^) in height and .45 m (18")
breadthwise. The sculpture of Siva is majestic, broad-chested
and benign in expression. The Amman with the pitham measures
.56 m (22") in height while Skandar in the middle is .25 m
(10") tall. The bhadrasana on which the three icons are seated
measures .14 m (5I") in height and .85 m (33$') in width.
There is an aureola covering the three icons with 19 tongues of
flame on each side with a bigger central flame. The Tani Amman
is equally exquisite in workmanship, measuring a graceful .81 m
(32 ) (with the pitham ), the Amman icon alone having a height
of .67 m (26J'). With the tiruvasi, the total height is 1.02 ms (40^").
There are 12 tongues of flames to each side of the aureola. Both
these metals are attributable to the period of Rajaraja I (Pis
106 to 1 13).
There is a mukhamandapa which is closed on all sides except
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME 1 37
the south, from which the main shrine is to be approached. Close
to this entrance, inside the mukhamandapa , are some more bronzes
of which the noteworthy ones are Nataraja, Kali, Chandrase-
kharar and Amman. The Nataraja icon whose aureola has 19
tongues of flame measures .79 m (31") in height and .69 m (27")
in width, with a .38 m (15") padma and bhadra pithams. The
Amman image measures .61 m (24") in height without the
pitham which measures .15 m (6"). The aureola of the Amman
is missing. The Kali figure standing in the abhanga pose has
urdhvakesa (upturned hair), and holds the damaru, pasa, kapala
and sula in the four hands. The Chandrasekharar figure is again
a beautiful one. The Amman is a neat figure with the flower in
the right hand, the other being held in the lola hasta style.
We learn from the inscriptions of his days that salt pans were
given as grants to the temple in the time of Rajaraja I. What is
noteworthy is that even today, the temple continues to be in
enjoyment of the lease of salt pans, deriving an annual income
of about Rs. 20,000 from them.
This temple in its present structure would be assignable to the
period of Rajaraja I and contains some inscriptions in excellent calli-
graphy and some bronzes of his period of exquisite workmanship.
OLAGAPURAM
SIVA TEMPLE (SRI KAILAYATTU
PARAMASVAMIN) 18
VISHNU TEMPLE (ARINJIGAI VINNAGAR) 19
Olagapuram village lies about 3 kms south-east of the Tindi-
vanam-Marakkanam road and is connected by a village track
taking off in a southerly direction at the 16 km stone from Villu-
puram. Alattur and Perumukkal are not far from here. The
village derives its name from that of one of the queens of
Rajaraja I, Loga Mahadevi who bore the alternate name of
Danti Sakti Vitanki. During the Chola days it bore the name of
Ologamadevipuram.*
♦Ologamadevi and Ulogamadevi are the Tamil equivalents of Loka-mahadevi.
138
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
There are two ancient temples in this village one dedicated
to Vishnu, now called Devarava Perumal and the other to Siva,
now called Kailasa temple. According to the inscriptions, the
Siva temple was called the Kailasamudaiyar alias Arikulakesari-
Isvaram Udaiyar temple and the Vishnu temple which is in the
western outskirts of the present site of the village was called
Arinjigai vinnagar.
Siva temple
This temple, which is now in the eastern part of the village
is unfortunately in ruins. The earliest inscription here is engraved
on the south wall of the central shrine and is dated in the third
regnal year of Rajakesarivarman, who has to be identified with
Rajaraja I. This inscription deals with an endowment of 96
sheep for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple of Sri Kailayattu
Paramasvamin of Ulogamadevipuram, a taniyur in Oyma nadu
made by one Ambalavan Gandaradittanar, a nobleman of the
days of Rajaraja I; we also learn that the same nobleman built
this temple in stone. The relevant portion of the record reads
as follows:
Svasti sri: Kovirajakesarivarmarkku yandu 3 avada Oyma nattu
taniyur Ulogamadevipurattu sri Kailayattu Paramasvamigalukku
tirukkarrali yeduppitta udaiyar Perundarattu Ambalavan Gandaradit-
tanar... nundavilakku onru... (ARE 129 of 1919).
Thus this temple in its present structural form in stone can be
attributed to the early years of this ruler. In another inscription
from the same temple found on the south wall of the central
shrine and dated in the seventh year of the king Rajaraja I,
this chief again donates a flower garden to the temple (ARE 127
of 1919). It records a sale of land by the Nagarattar (merchant
guild) of Ulogamadevipuram to Gangan Ambalavanana Gandara-
dittasola Villuparaiyan of Kuvalalam ( Kolar town in Karnataka
State) in Gangarusayira (theGanga Six Thousand) province, who
in turn endowed it for the flower garden. From an inscription
in the Ananlisvarar temple at Udavargudi, we find a reference
to the same nobleman from Kuvalalam who is said to have
endowed over 19 vehs of land for feeding 56 brahmanas in the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
139
said temple. The same officer or chief is said to have hailed
from Kuvalalam and to have belonged to the perundaram of
Mummadi Chola (Rajaraja I) named Ambalavan Paluvur
Nakkan alias Vikramasola Maharajan. He built of stone the
srivimana of the temple at Govindaputtur and endowed land for
worship therein in the third year of the king (ARE 168 of 1928-
29; also SII, XIII, 76). This chief figures largely in the reign
of Uttama Chola under this title. In another record from the same
place dated in the second year of Rajaraja I, he is mentioned
with the title of Rajaraja Pallavaraiyan (ARE 175 of 1928-29;
SII, XIII, 124).
Thus this temple is a foundation of the early years of
Rajaraja I and was already in existence by the third year of
his reign (a.d. 988).
From a late record of the Middle Chola period found in this
temple we get to know that the deity of this temple was called
Arikulakesari Isvaram Udaiyar; the temple was said to be situated
in Ulogamadevipuram in Peraayur nadu, a subdivision of Oyma
nadu; found on the south wall and belonging to the third year
of Rajakesarivarman alias Udaiyar Sri Rajamahendra deva,
beginning with the introduction r mam neeti murai valara’, it records
the sale of land by the nagarattar of this village for being presented
to the temple in order to meet the expenses connected with the
shrine of Rajendrasola Vitankar built in it (ARE 130 of 1919).
The temple is eka-tala and faces east; the garbhagriha is built
of stone and the superstructure is of brick; the garbhagriha is a
square of 5.60 ms side externally. The southern wall is intact
but the western and northern walls have collapsed bringing down
with them a part of the superstructure. The vertical face of the
southern wall is divided into three vertical segments, by pilasters;
while in the middle is the main devakoshta, housing a fine specimen
of Dakshinamurti, there is asymmetry in the distribution of the
niches, there being a niche to its east and none to its west. In
the eastern niche is a beautifully carved figure of Bhikshatanar.
Dakshinamurti is in the original devakoshta, while the image of
Bhikshatanar appears to be a later insertion in an improvised
niche. On the antarala wall, the southern niche where Ganapati
140
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
should have been, is now empty and on the northern side, the
niche houses an icon of Durga. This also appears to be a later
insertion. In front of the garbhagriha is a mukhamandapa with an
entrance from the southern side.
The entire group of buildings was surrounded by a wall of
enclosure 50 ms by 27.7 ms, of which only the plinth remains.
Within the temple campus, there are the structural remains of
three shrines, one in the north-west corner perhaps of Jyeshtha,
another close to the mukhamandapa on its northern side housing
Chandesar and a third shrine in the north-eastern side but adjoin-
ing the eastern enclosure wall with the entrance facing west,
where now a loose image of Surya is kept. The full complement
of the ashtaparivara-devatas might have existed in the past.
Vishnu Temple
This temple renovated by local effort is situated in the western
approaches to the village. The earliest inscription is found on
the north-west and south walls of the central shrine and belongs
to the third year of Parakesarivarman alias Rajendra Choladeva I ;
it mentions that grants made in previous years but not regis-
tered were now inscribed on the temple wall; they related to
grants of lands for offerings and sribali to the temple of Arinjaya-
Vinnagar-alvar in Loga Mahadevipuram in Peraayur nadu
and in this connection we get references to local lakes called the
Kalikantakap-/wm and the Gandaradittan-/wm (ARE 140 of
1919). The other record of the same king refers to a palace
woman belonging to Rajendrasoladevar Mummudisolat-terinda tiru-
manjanattar velam (south wall of the central shrine, record dated
in the twenty-fourth regnal of Rajendra I; ARE 142 of 1919).
An inscription dated in the third regnal year of Rajamahendra
gives information about the existence in this village of a Jaina
temple called Sundarasolap-Perumpalli, named evidently after
Sundara Chola and set up by Rajaraja I in memory of his father.
One Samantabahu Acharya, a worshipper of the deity of this
temple buys some land from the nagarattars of Ulogamadevipuram
to present the same to the temple of Arinjigai-Vinnagar-Virri-
runda- Alvar in order to meet its expenses (ARE 141 of 1919).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME
141
From some other records we gather that in this township, there
were other temples and shrines some of which were the temple
of Komani-undaar, Gokarnisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar temple,
and an Ayyanar temple called that of the Terkil- vasal- Mahasat-
tanar; for the last mentioned temple the nagar attars of this town-
ship made a gift of land for offerings, vide a record of Rajaraja I
dated in his eleventh regnal year, found on a slab set up in
front of the Ayyanar temple (ARE 144 of 1919).
Under the inspiration of Logamahadevi, the chief queen of
Rajaraja I were built at Ulogamadevipuram, a Siva temple
called Arikulakesari-Isvaram and a Vishnu temple named Arin-
jigai Vinnagar, both named after the names of Rajaraja Fs
grand-father and a Jaina temple called after his father; this
would demonstrate the catholic spirit of Logamahadevi, an
echo of what we find at Dadapuram under the inspiration of
Kundavai (Pis ii4to 118).
AGARAM (SOUTH ARCOT)
ABHIRAMESVARAR (EARLIER MAHA SASTA)
TEMPLE 20
Kayirur (now called Ayyur) Agaram is a village about 4 kms
north-west of Villupuram town (South Arcot district), reached
by a village track branching off from the Villupuram-Madras
trunk road at the third km from Villupuram town. At the tenth
km from this town on the same highway is the village of Chinta-
mani Agaram, where there is a Later Chola temple, called Kulot-
tunga-solisvaram. On the north wall of the Abhiramesvarar
temple at Ayyur Agaram here, there is an inscription of the
fifteenth year of Rajaraja I; this is the earliest of the inscriptions
found on the walls of this temple and it registers a sale of land
to the god Kayirur Ayyan alias Maha Sasta by Narayana Kali
Kramavittan, son of Krishna Kramavittan of Verpuram, one
of the managing members of the assembly of Nripatongach-
chayantangi-chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya on the north
bank of the river Pennai (Kaveri, mentioned in ARE 369 of
142 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
1922, is obviously a mistake). Another record of the same year
found on the east, north and west walls of the temple registers a
sale of land by the same person to a certain Kaliyiragan for burning
a perpetual lamp. Again in the same year, a sale of 39J kulis of
land is made to Maha Sasta Kayirur Ayyan by a certain Naduvil
Madhava Kramavittan, a managing member of the above
assembly (ARE 374 of 1922). There are two records in the
twentieth year of the king, one registering a gift of 96 sheep to
the temple of Maha Sasta for a perpetual lamp by a shepherd
of Sembaru in Emapperur nadu of Tirumunaippadi, a subdivision
ofVadakarai Rajendrasimha valanadu, and the other registering
a gift of land, by purchase, for offerings to the god by Somani
Nagai Sard, wife of Yagna Kramavittan of Ettukkur (ARE 380
of 1922). A record of the twenty-first year mentions the sale of
land to god Maha Sasta by the assembly of Tirunarayanach-
cherij under orders of the great assembly (ARE 377 of 1922).
On the west wall of the temple is a twenty-second year record of
Rajaraja I registering a resolution passed by the great assembly
that met in the courtyard of Achchyutappiriya devar, setting
apart a portion of the land belonging to Maha Sasta for burning
a perpetual lamp (ARE 387 of 1922). In a sale of land registered
in the twenty-fourth year, the deity is referred to as Maha Sasta
alias Paramasvamigal and the names of two brothers Nimbai
Narayana Bhattan and Damodara Kramavittan one of whom
was a managing member of the assembly are mentioned (ARE
371 of 1922). In the twenty-eighth year, provision is made for
feeding in the temple five brahmanas versed in the Vedas (ARE
378 of 1922).
There are three important inscriptions of Rajendra I dated
in his fifth, ninth and eleventh years. The first concerns a gift of
half a lamp by a certain person on the death of his wife; the next
one registers the deliberations of the members of the great
assembly regarding the occupancy of the land belonging to the
temple by artisans and others, assigning in return several kinds
of services to be rendered by them, like conducting worship
in the temple, supplying oil for lamps and keeping watch over
the temple. The third one is found on a beam in the temple,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
143
registering a grant of land for offerings and a perpetual lamp to
Maha Sasta Kayirur Ayyanar by the great assembly of Nri-
patonga-Sentangi-chaturvedimangalam alias Jananatha-chatur-
vedimangalam, a brahmadeya of Jayangondasola mandalam who
met in the Ayyanar temple (ARE 368 of 1922).
The village was earlier known as Nripatonga-Jayantangi-
chaturvedimangalam, and in the days of Rajaraja I came to be
known as Jananatha-chaturvedimangalam, after one of the
surnames of Rajaraja I, and was located in Vadakarai Rajendra-
simha valanadu in Jayangondasola mandalam.
This temple is evidently a foundation of the days of Rajaraja I
and was in existence by the fourteenth year of his reign. It has
no special architectual features. It has a sanctum, with an en-
closed mandapa in front, both standing on a high adhishthanam.
The central deity is still Sasta, though a replacement of the
original Sasta sculpture (stone), which is now placed on a plat-
form in the front mandapa. We do not know when and how the
temple came to be called Abhiramesvarar temple. Even as late
as the time of Bhupati Udaiyar of the Vijayanagara days (ARE
388 of 1922) the temple continued to be called the Ayyanar
temple. A Linga installed in the prakara perhaps justifies the
Saiva name of Abhiramesvaram, now given to the temple.
MAMBAKKAM
MURU GES VAR AS VAMIN TEMPLE 21
Mambakkam in Chingleput taluk of Chingleput district is
about seven kms south of Kalattur (15 kms south of Chingleput
town), which in turn is close to the railway station of Ottivakkam.
In this village, there is a temple called Murugesvarasvamin
temple.
On the south wall of the central shrine, there is an inscription
in which the name of the king is lost; from the introduction
beginning with tirumagal pola, we can assign it to Rajaraja I.
Dated in his twenty-sixth regnal year (a.d. ioii), it furnishes
the information that the Siva temple at Mambakkam was
144
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
constructed in the twenty-sixth year of the king by Murugan
Kaliyan of Mambakkam in Kalvay nadu, a sub-division of Puli-
yurkottam (ARE 19 of 1934-35; also ARE 1934-35, p. 49). The
same benefactor seems to have donated sheep for a perpetual
lamp to the deity of this temple, called here Muruga-Isvarattu
Alvar, evidently named after the builder Murugan Kaliyan.
EMAPPERUR
VEDAPURISVARAR (TIRU-ALANDURAI-UDAIYA-
22 PARAMASVAMIN) TEMPLE
Emapperur is a village on the river Malattaru, a tributary
that joins the Pennai river and is 24 kms south-west of Villupuram
(reached via Arasur — see pp. 252-253 of my Early Chola Temples).
The main deity of the temple here is known by the name of
Vedapurisvarar, while the name referred to in the inscriptions
is Tiru-Alanturai-Udaiya-Paramasvamin. Appar has referred
to this temple, but has sung no exclusive hymn on it.
This temple consists of the central shrine of Vedapurisvarar,
a mandapa in front of it, a Ganesa shrine and a shrine for Amman.
In addition there is the plinth of a subsidiary shrine, the walls
and roof of which have collapsed.
The mandapa walls contain certain records relating to Madirai
konda Parakesari and Kannaradeva; a portion of one of these
records has been built into the ardhamandapa walls, with the in-
scribed surface inside the mandapa. But the central shrine contains
a large number of records of the Middle Chola period, mostly
of Rajaraja I.
The earliest record is one of Parantaka I in his thirty-fifth
year (a.d. 942) and relates to a gift of land by a private citizen
of Kudupanjirrur, made for raising a flower garden and supplying
daily a garland of six spans in length to the deity (ARE 527 of
1921). Another record of his thirty-sixth year found on the south
wall of the mandapa refers to a gift of gold by Korrulan Kamadi
of Emapperur for a perpetual lamp. In this temple, there are
two records dated in the twenty-third and twenty-seventh
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
H5
years of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (Kannaradeva), both
relating to gifts; they are found on the south wall of the ardhaman-
dapa; the latter mentions an officer of Emapperur by name
Vanadarayan and relates to a.d. 967. There is a record of Pandi-
yan talai konda kopparakesaripanmar, viz., Aditya II found on the
jagatippadai of the adhishthanam (of the ardhamandapa) , which now
serves the purpose of a step leading to the mandapa from the court-
yard.
The rest of the records are to be found on the main walls of
the garbhagriha; the earliest record relates to the tenth year of
Rajaraja I and refers to a gift of 192 sheep by Uttiramandiri
Tangi Aruran of Manarrur in Vesalippadi for two perpetual
lamps (ARE 522 of 1921). From a record of his fourteenth year,
we get to know that Nandiputtan alias Sembiyan Muvendavelan,
a chief of Panaippakkam made a gift of land for offerings and a
lamp to the metallic images of Tribhuvana-sundarar (Tripuran-
takar) and His Consort set up by the donor in the temple of Tiru-
valandurai Alvar (ARE 523 of 1921). We do not know the fate
of these metal images. In the same year, Paravai Nangai, the
daughter of a servant of Rajaraja I, made a gift of 96 sheep for
a perpetual lamp (ARE 520 of 1921). In his twenty-first year,
a private individual of Paridipakkam made a gift of 96 sheep
for a perpetual lamp. Paridipakkam is stated to be a suburb
of Emapperur in Emapperur nadu, which was a sub-division
of Tirumunaippadi alias Rajendrasimha valanadu (ARE 517 of
1921). In his twenty-fifth year, a private individual of Emap-
perur provided for the supply of four areca nuts, three times
a day, to the god ; and in the same year, the daughter of the
servant of Rajaraja I referred to earlier made another gift for
burning a lamp in the month of Karttigai every year. There are
two records of Rajaraja I relating to his twenty-seventh year,
which deal with ( i ) the sale by the residents of Nalur, a village
in Emapperur nadu, of some lands free of tax to the temple
trustees of Tiruvalandurai-Udaiya Paramasvamin of Emap-
perur, for certain offerings to the God thrice a day; (ii) a gift for
the supply of paddy at the rate of one kuruni a day to the priest,
for the expenses connected with two festivals in the months of
146
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Chittirai and Margali and for offerings of lamps, oil, and flower-
garlands on these occasions (ARE 513, 514 of 1921).
There is a record of the third regnal year of Rajendra Cholal
(ARE 516 of 1921) referring to a gift of 96 sheep to the temple
for a perpetual lamp. Round the base of the Ganesa shrine, there
is a record of the thirteenth year, 207th day of a Konerinmai-
kondan who is to be identified with Rajendra I, containing an
order of Udaiyar Rajendra Chola devar “who was pleased to
take Purvadesam and Gangai”, confiscating the lands of persons
who had migrated without settling down in Tirumunaippadi
nadu and granting them to those who settled down and culti-
vated them on payment of taxes and to those who reared areca
palms on them.
The temple faces east; it is small and compact with an open
court within a wall of enclosure; there is a gopuram, without a
superstructure in the southern wall. The temple itself consists
of the garbhagriha, the antarala and the ardhamandapa. From the
open courtyard, the ardhamandapa is reached by a couple of steps
flanked by sinuous low balustrades. The garbhagriha is a square
of side 4.88 ms (15' 8^") externally; its wall is divided into three
constituents, viz-, the central bhadra and the flanking karnas;
the former is 2.10 ms (6' 10J") while the latter measure 1.09 ms
(3' 7") in width each. There is a small recess between these
elements measuring .25 ms (10") by .28 ms (n"); the antarala
projects 3.23 ms (10' 7") forward and measures 2.56 ms (8' 5")
by 2.27 ms (7' 5I") internally. The adhishthanam measures
1.92 ms (6' 3I") while the wall and the pjrastara measure 2.13 ms
(7'), making a total of 4.05 ms (13' 3") from the base to the top
of the prastara: The temple is an eka-tala structure. It has an
octogonal sikhara and a stupi, both later renovations. The ardha-
mandapa measures externally 8.98 ms (27' 2|") by 6.40 ms (21')
and 5.18 ms (17') by 4.34 ms (14' 3") internally. There are four
supporting pillars of a later date inside the ardhamandapa.
There are five niche figures: Bhikshatanar ison the antarala wall
in the south; over the niche is a makara-torana with a kudu inset,
the figure therein being a fine one of Ganesa; in the south, the
niche figure on the garbhagriha wall is Dakshinamurti, with
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
147
Yoga Dakshinamurti in the makara-torana kudu on top; in the rear
(western) niche is a fine figure of Siva-Alingina-murti (with the
bull-mount shown behind), the torana figure being Lingodbhavar;
in the north koshta of the garbhagriha is Brahma with Gajasam-
haramurti in the torana, and finally, in the north antarala koshta
is Durga.
At the back of the main shrine are three structures; one of
them in the south-west, is a subshrine for Ganapati, another, of
which only the plinth is left, should have been the subshrine
of Subrahmanyar (being directly west of the garbhagriha) . The
third one, in the north-west, presently houses the Amman, but
should have originally housed Jyeshtha. The remaining members
of the parivara alaya group must once have been there, but of
the deities of these alayas, we have only Ganapati in his place;
Subrahmanyar is kept in the Amman shrine, while Bhairavar
is kept in the ardhamandapa ; there is no trace of the other deities.
Ghandesvarar is in the original position, though the shrine has
been renovated. The sculpture itself is old. The incomplete
gopuram would appear to belong to the thirteenth century; it
has a high adhishthanam with four pilasters similar to the ones
we have on the garbhagriha walls, with kumbha-pancharas flanking
a deep high niche with a sala type of design over the niche.
The existence of the figure of Siva-Uma Alinginamurti
in the rear devakoshta would seem to indicate that the temple
came into existence even in the days of Aditya I. A parallel is
to be found in the Vishamangalesvarar temple of Tudaiyur,
where we have an identical arrangement of Siva and Parvati
in the alingana (embracing) pose in the rear devakoshta (see my
Early Chola Temples, pp. 218-219, 290 and 308, and pi 12 in the
Supplement).
BRAHMADESAM (SOUTH ARCOT)
BRAHMAPURISVARAR TEMPLE 22
Brahmadesam is in the Villupuram taluk of the South Arcot
district, close to Ennayiram, Esalam and Dadapuram, all centres
148 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
of antiquity; it is not to be confused with Brahmadesam in Chey-
yar taluk of the North Arcot district. In fact there is yet another
Brahmadesam near Tiruvalisvaram, not far from Ambasamudram
in the Tirunelveli district.
In ancient days, this place was a taniyur called Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam. There are two temples in this place
situated close to each other, viz., the Brahmesvarar and the Patalis-
varar temples; they might have come into existence even in the
days of Rajaraja I, along with the Ravikula-manikkesvaram
and the Kundavai Vinnagar at Dadapuram and the earliest
inscriptions found on the walls of the Brahmesvarar (Pirames-
varar) temple are from the thirty-first regnal year of Kulottunga I
onwards ( a . d . 1121) and the earliest in the case of the Patalis-
varar temple is dated in the fourth year of Vira Rajendra ( a . d .
1067).
Here we are concerned with the former temple. It is about
three kms from Nemur, which is on the nineteenth km-stone from
Villupuram on the road to Ginjee. It is a venerable structure.
The earliest inscription in this temple is that of Kulottunga I
and related to a gift of 128 cows for burning four perpetual
lamps. On the south wall, there is another inscription of the forty-
first year of Kulottunga I (a.d. iiii— ARE 158 of 1918).
It is stated that the king was residing in the temple of Rajaraja
Vinnagar Alvar who was his tutelary deity, along with his
subordinate ( maganar ) Adavallan alias Kulottungasola Muvenda-
velan, who was the Governor of this region, extending over
portions of North Arcot, South Arcot and Chingleput districts.
The record mentions that the assembly of the great men of
Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya and taniyur in ... .
(Panai)yur nadu, a subdivision of Gangaikondasola valanadu
purchased, in the name of Brahmapurisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar,
some land in Panaiyur, a southern hamlet of the village. The
reference to the Rajaraja Vinnagar Alvar as the tutelary deity
of the king would dispel the doubts raised by some scholars that
Kulottunga I was a persecutor of Vaishnavism.* In fact, the
*See Tribhuvani, Ch.6, Note
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
149
Cholas have been very catholic in their attitude to other religions.
The inscription further says that the king performed devapratishthai
(building of temples and consecration of deities) and jalapratish-
thai (digging of tanks and channels for water supply) “to protect
the good and punish the wicked”.
There are two inscriptions of Vikrama Chola; one which
is incomplete attests the king’s religious tolerance as in the case
of Kulottunga I, and the other, found on the wall of the kitchen,
mentions that the kitchen was built during his days and was
named Vikrama Gholan (ARE 160 and 182 of 1928).!
fa few later inscriptions: An inscription of Kulottunga II (Anapaya) refers to the exemption
from taxes in respect of devadana lands belonging to the Brahmesvaram Udaiya Mahadevar
temple and the lands gifted to the Rajanarayana matham situated within that temple and these
lands were clubbed together to form a new village called Kulottunga-Cholanallur (are 179,
180 and 181 of 1918).
There are seven inscriptions which can be ascribed to Kulottunga II. One of them refers to
a gift of land in Nerkuppai, the northern hamlet of the city, for worship and the celebration
of the processional festival of the deity. Mention is made of the construction of the second tiru-
maligai (wall of enclosure with gopuram) by a chief called Ammaiyappan Gandarasuriyan alias
Sambuvarayan in the eighteenth year of the king (are j 83 of 1918). The same Chief is referred
to in a second year inscription of Kulottunga III at Tiruvakkarai as the builder of the hundred
pillared hall there (are 190 and 195 of 1904). In another inscription of the fourth year, there
figures a royal officer who was a Sambuvarayan chief, called Ammaiyappan Pandinadukondan
alias Rajaraja Sambuvarayan. He is said to have utilised the gold of two todus (ear-drops) for
various services to the deity (are 167 of 1918).
Another gift of a lamp to this temple was made in the thirteenth year of Rajaraja (II).
Another inscription of the same reign mentions a gift of 40 lamps to the two temples of Brahme-
svaram and Patalisvaram.
That these two names apply to the same chief, of the Sengeni family, who participated in the
Pandyan wars and won the title of Pandinadu kondan is confirmed by an inscription in En-
nayiram (are 345 of 1917) relating to the 6th year of Virarajendra deva (Kulottunga III)
which mentions that Ammaiyappan Pandinadu kondan Gandan Suriyan alias Rajaraja Sambu-
varayan, also constructed a mandapa in front of the Alagiya Narasimha Perumal temple at En-
nayiram.
There are two inscriptions of the later Pallava king Kopperunjinga (are 164 of 1918; are
170 of 1918).
The Pandya conquest of this region is evident from two inscriptions, one of Vikrama
Pandya deva, which mentions a gift of land for worship and offerings at the sandhi called Kula-
sekharan sandhi (are 174 of 1918) and another called Kodandaraman sandhi (fourteenth
century a.d.?). In the latter half of the fifteenth century, a gift of land for worship and offerings
is recorded in the days of the Vijayanagara ruler Saluva Narasinga Maharaja (Saka 1392 = a.d.
1 470) to both the local temples of Brahmesvaram and Patalisvaram. At the end of the fifteenth
century or early sixteenth century, during the time of the son of Virapratapa Devaraya Maha-
raja, one Aram-valartta Nayanar, a member of the Kaikolar community, petitioned to Kanga-
rayar and got the right to use the high pillow ( dandu ) and the couch as in vogue in Kanchi,
Virinchipuram and Tiruvadi(gai)? thus eliminating some of the social disabilities they suffered
from (are 162 of 1918).
15O MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The temple lies in the north-western corner of the village and
there is an enormous lake to the north of it. The temple has two
prakaras. The central shrine consists of the garbhagriha and the
antarala with an ardhamandapa in front. The central bays of the
three walls of the garbhagriha project forward and contain niches
in which are housed Dakshinamurti in the south, Lingodbhavar
in the west and Brahma in the north ; on the flanks of the antarala
walls, we have Ganapati in the south and Durga in the north.
There is a circumambulatory passage with a pillared peristyle
( tiruch-churru-maligai ) running all along the wall of enclosure.
On the eastern face of the ardhamandapa wall, there are two fine
stone sculptures of Subrahmanyar and standing Ganapati, one
on either side of the doorway leading from the prakara to the
ardhamandapa, which is supported by four pillars in the middle.
In front of the ardhamandapa, and, in alignment with it, is a mani-
mandapa. Ahead of it is the bali-pitham. Further to the east is a
multi-pillared mandapa covering the entire distance from the
northern wall to the southern with the eastern wall forming the
third side. The southern portion of this hall has been converted
into the kitchen, named Vikrama Cholan. The outer wall and
the gopuram in the east were built by Ammaiyappan Gandara
Suriyan alias Sambuvarayan.
ENNAYIRAM
ALAGIYA NARASIMHA PERUMAL (RAJARAJA
24 VINNAGAR) TEMPLE
I he area formed by the triangle joining Villupuram, Tin-
divanam and Ginjee would appear to have constituted roughly
the taniyur of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam with a large number
of hamlets known as ‘pidagais’. This taniyur has played a very
important part in the days of the Middle Cholas, for we find a
concentration of some of the finest temples of this period in
this region. Such for example are Brahmadesam, Esalam, Enna-
yiram and Dadapuram among others. All these centres are
close together; in lact, the first three centres mentioned are
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 151
within a distance of three kms from one another and the last
mentioned is about 15 kms from this group of villages.
Ennayiram is about five kms from Nemur, a village at the
nineteenth km stone from Villupuram on the Villupuram-
Ginjee road. Brahmadesam and Esalam are within three kilo-
metres of Ennayiram. The famous Pallava cave temple at
Mandagappattu is also not far from here, being on the main
Villupuram-Ginjee road at the twentieth km stone, set in
picturesque surroundings.
An insignificant village today, Ennayiram was the hub of
considerable activity during the Middle Chola period and re-
ceived the royal attention of Rajaraja I, his son and grandsons.
The temple at Ennayiram known as Alagiya Narasimha Perumal
temple has some valuable inscriptions that throw light on the
administrative arrangements that existed then; and there is
one record in particular that gives us valuable details about a
Vedic College and a hostel run in the campus of the temple.
Ennayiram was a taniyur as well as a brahmadeyam and was
perhaps the focal point of the area. An inscription dated in the
twenty-fifth year, 112th day of Rajendra I (a.d. 1036), found
on the west and south walls of the central shrine of Alagiya
Narasimha Perumal temple (ARE 335 of 1917), mentions
that on the order of the king Rajendra I, the assembly of Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam in Rajaraja valanadu, met in the hall
called Mummudi-sola mandapam under the chairmanship of
Nambi-udattur Udaiyar, who administered the village, and
made arrangements ( vyavastha ) regarding the allocation of
the income derived from lands belonging to a number of temples,
and set apart the quantities for various services in these temples.
Among the temples mentioned in this record are those of
(i) Sri Mulasthanam Udaiyar, iii) Rajaraja vinnagar alvar,
(in) Kundavai vinnagar alvar and (iv) Sundara Chola vinnagar
alvar. Among the deities mentioned in this regard are (i)
Devendra, (ii) Sarasvati, (Hi) Sri Bhattaraki, (iv) Mahamodi,
(v) Surya devar, (vi) Durga, (vii) Subrahmanyar, (viii) Jyeshtha,
(ix) the Devas of the cherts (the grama-devatas) , Sapamatris,
Mahasasta and (x) Singavelkunralvar.
152
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
Among the four temples mentioned, the Rajaraja vinnagar
should refer to the modern Alagiva Narasimha Perumal temple
at Ennayiram and the Kundavai vinnagar to the Kari Varada
Perumal temple at Dadapuram; the deities mentioned are
devakoskta devatas, ashta-parivara-devatas and the grama-devatas in
the taniyur which included Ennayiram, Brahmadesam and
Dadapuram. It has to be mentioned in this connection that a
sixteenth century Vijayanagara inscription of Sadasiva Maharaja
(Saka 1467 = a.d. 1545) says that this Alagiya Narasinga Peru-
mal temple was situated in the centre of 24 sacred shrines (tiru
murrain) of Ennayiram (ARE 338 of 1918).
An inscription of the thirtieth year of Rajendra I refers to
a gift of land by the assembly of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam
for the festival of Chittirai-Sadaiyam (which was the natal star
of Rajaraja I), and Masi Punarpusam, for Raghava-Chakravartin
(Sri Rama) in the temple of Rajaraja vinnagar alvar. The
assembly is said to have met in the temple of Rajaraja-Isvaram-
Udaiyar. Gould this possibly refer to the Brahmapurisvarar
temple at Brahmadesam which was rebuilt by Kulottunga I
and his successors ?. If so, the temple of Mulasthanam Udaiyar
referred to in the ARE 335 of 1917 in the list of temples could
also refer to this temple at Brahmadesam.
A very important and interesting inscription found in the
Alagiya Narasimha Perumal temple (ARE 333 of 1917), belongs
to Rajendra I; the date of the inscription is unfortunately so
completely effaced that it is difficult to make it out, but, based
on the conquests mentioned therein, it cannot be earlier than
a.d. 1023. By the king’s order, 45 velis of land in Anangur alias
Rajarajanallur was given to Rajaraja Vinnagar (Alagiyasinga
Perumal temple) by the mahasabha of the taniyur of Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam (Ennayiram) for offerings, festivals, the
recitation of Tiruvaymoli, the maintenance of an institution of
higher learning for teaching the Vedas, Vyakarana, Mimamsa
and Vedanta.
On the walls of the central shrine, there is an inscription
of the thirtieth year of Rajadhiraja I (ARE 330 of 1917).
According to it, the Perunguri (the great assembly) of
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
153
the taniyur of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeyam
in Panaiyur nadu included in Rajendra Chola valanadu,
met in the mandapa called Mummadi-solan with Alagan Virri-
randan alias Mummadi-solan with Ala Nripendra-sola Muven-
davelar, the governor of the region as its President, and ordered
the lands of the temple of Tiruvayppadi devar to be taxed at
the lowest scale (kadai-taram ) , as were those of Rajaraja vinnagar
devar (Alagiya Narasinga Perumal temple) and, Kundavai
vinnagar devar (Kari Varada Perumal temple) at Dadapuram.
The order of the king is said to have been passed on to the Assem-
bly three years later (a case of bureaucratic delay?).
The importance of the temple did not diminish even in the
Later Chola period. f
tThere are seven inscriptions which are assignable to the reign of Kulottunga I (ARE 340,
344, 348, 349, 347, 350 and 351 of 1917). The first, of his seventh regnal year, mentions a gift of
10 cows for a lamp to the temple of Rajaraja Vinnagar Alvar at Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam
by Ulagalandan Tiruvarangadevan of Kulattur, evidently the officer entrusted with the work
of land survey. One relating to his thirty-eighth year, fiftieth day records a settlement ( vyavastha )
regarding a gift of land to the temple of Sri Vaikuntattalvar at Araisur in Tirumunaippadi
nadu. The assembly is said to have met in the temple of Rajaraja Vinnagar Alvar at Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam.
His inscription of the thirty-ninth year, fiftieth day deserves special attention as it refers to
an act of piety by the royalty for the general weal of the people. At the instance of the king, the
assembly of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam, in Panaiyur nadu, in company with (presided over
by ?) prince Kulottunga-Sola Muvendavelar, the headman of Sembiyan Puliyur Verkadu in
Puliyur kottam, performed the consecration ceremony of the god ( deyvapratishthai ) and made avail-
able water sources ( jala-pratishthai- tanks) for the spiritual merit of the king and for the destruc-
tion of the wicked and the promotion of the prosperity of the good and made certain gifts of
land in Anangur.
This was not the first time that such a provision was made. As early as the reign of Rajendra I
(ARE 333 of 1917), we have a similar act of devotion and piety, and a grant is said to have
been made to the “Paramasvamin (Lord) who was pleased to stand with a fierce aspect” (Ugra-
Narasimha?) in the temple of Rajaraja Vinnagar. This is again repeated in an inscription at
Brahmadesam which relates to the forty-first year of Kulottunga I (ARE 158 of 1918). It is
stated that the king was residing at that time in the temple of Rajaraja Vinnagar Alvar, the
king’s tutelary deity and he is said to have performed deyvapratishthai and jala-paratishthai.
It has to be remembered that this region round about Ennayiram was a frontier area, formerly
the home of the Banas and the Gangas. About this time in the reign of Kulottunga I, the Hoysalas
in Karnataka rose to prominence and wrested Talakkad and Gangavadi (Eastern Mysore
region) from the Cholas; happenings in Kalinga were also ominous and about to lead to the
second Kalinga war. It may be that the king wanted to propitiate God by promoting works
of social well-being and invoking the blessings of Narasimha of the fierce aspect to ensure
success for his arms and to suppress the unruly elements in the region.
The next important inscription is one of the eleventh year of Rajarajadeva (II). At the order
of the king, the assembly of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam gave to a private person, as janmakkani,
i54
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Though in a state of considerable disrepair, the temple stands
out as a grand edifice in the sky line as one approaches this
village via a tortuous country track. It faces east and consists
of a garbhagriha, an antarala, an ardhamandapa , a mukhamandapa
and an agramandapa. The first three elements constitute one
structural unit, being the original foundation. The other mandapas
are later additions. What distinguishes this temple from the
others in the neighbourhood is the dignified height that is im-
parted to the entire structure by the three foot high platform over
which the temple stands. Besides, the tiruch-churru-maligai is simi-
larly on a platform of the same height. The platform is not a
mere rectangle but has central projections into the circum-
ambulatory passage on the two sides and the rear of the garbhagnha.
These projections, three in number, are of the same height as the
rest of the platform and function as the landing for a pair of
flights of steps leading up to them from the prakara floor ; to add
compactness to the entire structure, these flights of steps cling
to the sides of the main platform without intruding into the
prakara space. In alignment with these projecting platform elements
are three chambers on the three walls of the garbhagriha, making
use of the space between the antara-bhitti and the bahya-bhitti.
Unlike in the Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur where this
space has been utilised as a vestibule round the sanctum, here each
of the three portions is sealed off from the adjoining portion, thus
giving rise to separate chambers. They might have once housed
the village of Nannaderpakkam alias Vikraina-Chola-nallur, which was a devaiana of Tiruvira-
mesvaram Udaiyar at Eydar, now called Esalam, a hamlet of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam
(ARE 326 of 1917).
An inscription of the sixth year of Tribhuvanachakravartin Vira Rajendradeva (i.e., Kulot-
tunga III) mentions the construction of a mandapa in front of the Alagiya-Narasimha-Perumal
temple by Ammaiyappan Pandi nadu Kondan Gandan Suriyan alias Rajaraja Sambuvarayan,
whose extensive building activities in this region we see at Tiruvakkarai and Brahmadesam
(ARE 345 of 1917;.
Under the orders, dated in Saka 1467 (a.d. 1545), of Surappa Nayakka Ayya, the local
Chief of Sadasiva Maharaja of Vijayanagara, provision was made for betel leaf offerings to the
Lord of this temple (ARE 332 of 1917). Another Vijayanagara inscription (ARE 338 of 1917)
also dated in Saka 1467 (a.d. 1545J mentions that one Sri Rangarajar Pillai was the Treasurer
and Manager of this temple, which was situated “in the centre of the twenty four shrines
\liru-murram) of Ennayiram, which was a taniyur in Panaiyur nadu in Rajaraja valanadu in
the district of Palakunrak-kottam in Jayangondasola mandalam.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
155
three massive images akin to the devakoshta figures of a Vishnu
temple, but today they are empty. The temple is of stone only
upto the top of the adhishthanam which is 1.22 ms (4') in height;
above it, it is all brick work.
Like the Ramasvamin temple at Seramadevi, in Tirunel-
veli district, the superstructure over the mulasthana of this temple
is divided into two floors, one meant to house the sitting and
the other the reclining Vishnu ; the chambers are, however,
empty.
The mahamandapa is a vast hall supported by fifty pillars
arranged in five rows of ten pillars each ; and ahead of it, further
east, is the agramandapa. There are a garuda mandapa , a bali-pitha
and a dhvajastambha in that order in front of the temple.
There is a very fine figure of Narasimhamurti in the
mukhamandapa (north-west corner). Could it have been the main
deity in the past? Today, the deity of the mulasthana is a standing
figure of Narasimha.
It is sad to contemplate that this temple of such rich asso-
ciations and such architectural beauty is now a dilapidated
structure, almost in a state of collapse. Before it is too late,
this temple requires to be taken up for preservation (Pis 119
to i2o). ++
F+ Vedic College : According to the inscription of Rajendra I, relating to the setting up of a
Vedic College in the temple premises (ARE 333 of 1917), the assembly made the following pro-
visions among others :
(i) Four persons were appointed for the recitation of Tiruvaymoli hymns in the temple
and they were allowed three kurunis of paddy each per day. To meet this charge, land
at Anangur alias Rajarajanallur measuring half a veil and two ma in extent was given.
( ii ) For feeding twenty-five Sri-Vaishnavas in the matha attached to the same temple, one
veil and four ma of land in the same place were allotted.
(tit) Sixty kalams of paddy and three kalanjus of gold were also provided for the seven-day
festival of Ani-Anulam in order to feed one thousand Vaishnavas and dasas (devotees)
who came to witness it.
(io) Half a veil and two ma of land and some gold were given to meet the cost of taking
the god in procession round the village, in a car; for the grant of clothes to the mendi-
cants on the occasion; for purchasing cloth to be put on the deity; for offerings, bath
and garlands; for performing certain ceremonies etc.
The following students were fed in the Gangaikondasolan-manrfa/ia :
(a) 75 studying the Rig -Veda
(£) 75 studying the Tajur-Veda
( c ) 20 studying the Chandoga-Sama
J5 6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(d) 20 studying the Talavakara-Sama
(e) 20 studying the Vajasaneya
(/) io studying the Albania
(g) io studying the Baudhayaniya Grihya-kalpa and Gana,
thus making a total of 230 brahmacharins for studying the above-mentioned (apurvam) Vedas
which, with the 40 persons learning the Rupavatara , came to 270. Six nalis of paddy were allotted
for each of these per day.
Further there were:
(h) 25 learning the Vyakarana
(«) 35 learning the Prabhakara, and
(j) 10 persons learning the Vedanta.
For these 70 pupils ( sattirar J who learnt the ottu (Vedas), provision was made at the rate of one
kuruni and two nalis of paddy each per day.
One kalam of paddy was given to the nambi who expounded the Vyakarana, one kalam to
another who expounded the Prabhakara and one kalam and one tuni to the third who expounded
the Vedanta.
Ten professors were appointed to teach the Vedas as detailed below:
Three to teach the Rig- Veda
Three to teach the Tajur- Veda
One to teach the Chandoga
One to teach the Talavakara Sama
One to teach the Vajasaneya (i) ( Tajnavalkya’s recension of the Tajur Veda )
One to teach the Baudhayaniya grihya and kalpa and Kathaka
1 he teacher who expounded the Rupavatara got three kurunis of paddy a day. Thus, for a
day, 30 kalams of paddy measured by the Rajaraja-marakkal were required. The annual
requirements came to 10,506 kalams of paddy. The gold required for expenses was as follows:-
8 kalanjus of gold to the professor of Vyakarana for expounding 8 adhyayas at one kalanju
per adhyaya,
12 kalanjus to. . . forexpounding 12 adhyayas at one kalanju per adhyaya,
6£ kalanjus to the 13 professors who taught Vedas and to the one who expounded the Rupa-
vatara at half a kalanju each, and
35 kalanjus at half a kalanju each, to the 70 pupils (sattirar) who learnt the Vyakarana and the
Mimamsa.
Thus, in all, for the 6 1 J kalanjus of gold and the paddy that were required, the temple was
put in possession of 45 velis of land situated in Mambakkachcheri alias Pavittira-manikka-nallur
forming part of Anangur alias Rajarajanallur and Melakkudalur alias Purusha-narayana-nallur.
King Rajendra Choladcva I, having thus directed the assembly of Rajaraja-chaturvedi-
mangalam, ordered, in the presence of Kali Ekamranar, the head of the village, that they
should not show in the account books, any more taxes than 1/16 ma and one padakku against the
persons residing in the said two villages and cultivating the 45 velis of land, and this they pro-
mised to do under solemn oaths.
This inscription is of great importance to us as it shows clearly that in ancient temples not
only was the regular conduct of worship maintained but also the study of the Vedas, philoso-
phy, grammar and other sciences was encouraged by munificent royal grants. Gifts made for
such purposes as these were known as Vedavritti and Adhyayananga. In some cases, provision was
made for feeding a few persons versed in the Vedas, and Apurvins.
The hostel attached to the temple at Ennayiram seems to have fed not only teachers
and students of the Vedic College but other men as well. One of the records (ARE 343
of 1917) refers to the maintenance of a hostel, presumably attached to the college. Here
provision was made for feeding 506 learned men among whom were Vedic scholars and
Sri Vaishnavas. This number might have included the 350 attached to the college.
The rest must have included those who sang the Tiruppadiyam, who formed the goshti,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
157
ESALAM
VALISVARAR TEMPLE (TIRUVIRAMESVARAM) 25
While dealing with Eimayiram, we have mentioned how
Dadapuram, Brahmadesam, Esalam and Ennayiram consti-
tuted something of a regional unit, all coming within the juris-
diction of the taniyur of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam. Esalam,
Ennayiram and Brahmadesam are within a distance of three
kms from one another and are about seven kms from the nine-
teenth km-stone on the Villupuram-Ginjee road (Nemur).
The Esalam temple is in a state of good repair.
There are two inscriptions found on the walls of the temples
in the neighbourhood, which refer to this temple, (i) One of
them is an inscription of the eleventh year of Parakesarivarman
alias Tribhuvanachakravartin Rajarajadeva (II?) found in the
Alagiya Narasimha Perumal temple at Ennayiram. It mentions
that at the order of the king, the assembly of Rajaraja-chatur-
vedimangalam in Rajaraja valanadu made over the village
of Nannaderpakkam alias Vikramasolanallur, which is said
to have been a devadanam of Tiruviramesvaram Udaiyar at Eydar,
a hamlet of this city, to a person of Vanchiyur and his descend -
who recited the Tiruppugal and who uttered Sadyajnam. As jatakadakshina on the day of
Jayantyashtami (the birthday) of Vennai kuttar (Krishna), it is stated, those brahmanas who
completed the study of the Rig, Tajur and Sama Vedas should receive a gold flower and a gold
ring. On the merchant class which received money from the markets devolved the duty of
supplying well-husked rice which they were enjoined to bring to the hostel and measure out at
the rate of two to five of paddy for (feeding?) the inmates. The great men in charge of the
urvariyam (the village Supervision Committee) had to look after the daily supply of firewood
required for the hostel. The brahmana and Valanjiya merchants who traded in the south bazaar
were given a certain amount of money and they agreed to supply sugar and other articles in
lieu of the interest on the sum lent. And it is further added that the excess of ghee, milk and
curds that remained after meeting the requirements of the temple should be made over to the
hostel.
There is a reference to a similar feeding house, but in a much smaller scale in ARE 323 of
1917 which comes from Panaiyavaram. Here provision is made for conducting a hostel ( salai )
which fed daily 50 brahmanas and 1 o Sivayogins who were also given oil for bathing. The
same inscription further provides for a teacher of a free school ( dharma-palli ) and for maintain-
ing three water-sheds, one in front of the temple of Paravai Isvaramudaiyar, another in front
of the mandapa of Rajendrasolan and the third in front of the temple of Rajendrasola Vinnagar
Alvar. For rendering service in the hostel and the water sheds, brahmacharins were appointed.
i 5 8
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
ants as a janmakani (ARE 336 of 1917). («) The other inscrip-
tion, in the Patalisvaram temple at Brahmadesam close by,
relating to the seventh year of Kulottunga deva I, mentions
Eydari as a southern hamlet of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam
in Panaiyurnadu (ARE 190 of 1918). We should have no diffi-
culty in identifying this Eydari with Eydar (i.e. Esalam) of the
inscription mentioned above.
According to an inscription found close to the Dakshina-
murti figure on the base of the south wall of the Valisvarar temple
here, the deity is called Tiruviramadevar (i.e., Tiru-Irames-
varar). The following is the extract:
“na?n brahmasthanam gangaikonda-solaniley koodi irundu . . . Udai-
yar Rajendrasola devar Kurukkal Soma Siva Panditar nammoor
Eydar tiruvirama-devarkku . . . tiru amirdukku ...”
This record gives us the name of the deity as Tiru-Irama
devar.
This temple is not the only instance of its kind where the
original name of the deity of Tiru-Iramesvarar got distorted
into Tiru-valisvarar, in course of time. Such an example could
be found at Arppakkam, where the deity is referred to in in-
scriptions as Tiruviramesvarar, but the present day name is
Valisvarar; so too at Tiruvalisvaram near Ambasamudram in
Tirunelveli district. These temples are dedicated to Siva who
was worshipped by Rama. Hence the name Tiru-Irama-Isvaram.
There is a similar temple in Nannilam taluk called Tiru-Rama-
nathisvaram.
The temple faces east and consists of a garbhagriha and an
ardhamandapa. It is an eka-tala structure. There are three deva-
koshtas on the three outer walls of the garbhagriha ; there is a
bhutagana frieze below the cornice ( kodungai ) and a yali frieze
above it. The yalis of the latter frieze are interspersed with fro-
licking ganas. In the entablature there are neither salas nor kutas.
There is a bell-shaped sikhara and a round stupi over the griva,
which has griva-koshtas taking ofif from the yali frieze. The entire
structure is in stone, and the sikhara closely resembles those of
Kadambavanesvarar temple at Narttamalai, the Madagadippattu
temple and the Arinjigai-Isvaram at Melpadi.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
159
The adhishthanam measures 0.92 m (3') in height from the
ground while the wall of the garbhagriha measures 3.12 ms (10 '3").
The garbhagriha walls are divided into three vertical compo-
nents. The garbhagriha measures 4.88 ms (16') square. The
ardhamandapa projects 5.61 ms (18' 5") forward.
There are five devakoshta figures, viz., Ganapati and Vinadhara
Dakshinamurti in the south, Vishnu in the west, and Brahma
and Durga in the north. (Pis 121 to 125).
This temple should have come into existence in the days
of Rajaraja I along with the various other temples in the neigh-
bourhood.
DADAPURAM
MANIKANTESVARAR (IRAVIKULA-MANIKKES-
VARAM) TEMPLE 26
Next to Sembiyan Mahadevi, whose magnificent philanthropy
in the field of temple building activities is well known, Kundavai,
the elder sister of Rajaraja I, holds an honoured place among
the Chola queens. She should be distinguished from Kundavai,
the daughter of Rajaraja I, and another of the same name, the
younger sister ( tirut-tangaiyar ) of the Later Chola king, Kulot-
tunga I. She is described as the daughter of Ponmaligai tunjiya
devar (i. e., Parantaka II alias Sundara Chola), the elder sister
of Rajaraja I ( akkan , as she is called in his inscriptions) and the
wife of Vallavaraya Vandya Devar, the chief of the Samantas
of Rajaraja I. Her great filial devotion is seen from the fact that
she is credited with the making of metallic images of her parents
and presenting them to the temple built by her brother at Tanja-
vur. Her philanthropy was many sided. In addition to raising
many temples and making gifts to maintain and glorify them,
she is credited with the construction of irrigation tanks named
“Kundavaip-pereri” and “Sundara-Cholap-pereri” which must
have been excavated by her and named after her and her father
respectively near Brahmadesam, close to Cheyyar, in the North
Arcot district (ARE 264 of 1915).
l6o MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
She seems to have survived her brother, and two inscriptions
of the reign of her brother’s son Rajendra I (third and seventh
year, ARE 248 and 249 of 1923) mention her establishing
at the Chola capital at Tanjavur, a hospital named after her
father, called the Sundara-chola-vinnagara-atular-salai, for which
gifts of house-site and lands for its maintenance in perpetuity were
made at Pandaravadai near Tanjavur.
We have already seen that an inscription of the Alagiyasinga
Perumal temple at Ennayiram, of the time of the Vijayanagara
ruler Sadasiva Maharaja (Saka i467=a.d. 1545) states that this
temple was “the centre of 24 sacred shrines” (ARE 338 of 1917).
An inscription in the same temple (ARE 335 of 1917) dated in
the twenty-fifth year, 112th day of Rajendra I (a.d. 1036) states
that at the king’s order the assembly of Rajaraja-chaturvedi-
mangalam (Ennayiram) in Jayangondasola mandalam met in
the hall of this temple called Mummudisola mandapa and made
a settlement regarding the income derived from the lands belong-
ing to a number of shrines, and apportioned them for various
services (see Section on Ennayiram).
An inscription of the 21st year of Rajaraja I on the wall of
the Sri Kari-varada Perumal temple (ARE 8 of 1929) here
gives a list of vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and
pearls and presented to the temples of (1) Kundavai Vinnagar,
(2) Iravikula Manikka Isvaram and (3) Kundavai Jinalaya
built by Parantakan Kundavaip-pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmali-
gaitunjina devar (Sundara Chola) in the city of Rajarajapuram
(modern Dadapuram).
Another inscription of the twenty-first year of Rajaraja I
in this temple (ARE 17 of 1919) also refers to the construction
of the three temples built by Princess Kundavai Pirattiyar in
the city of Rajarajapuram referred to above (ARE 8 of 1919)
and it records that, on receipt of a royal writ, the adminis-
trative officer in charge of Panaiyur ordered the temple treasury
to be examined and a list of the various gifts consisting of vessels
and ornaments of various descriptions made of gold, silver and
pearls, to be engraved on stone in the respective temples.
Yet another inscription found in the Kari-varada Perumal
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME l6l
temple (ARE 14 of 1919) registers an order of the twenty-third
year of Rajaraja I which directs that the dancing girls attached
to the temples of Iravikula Manikka Isvarar and Kundavai
Vinnagar Alvar should accompany the god in procession and
sing and dance during the hunting festival of the Vishnu
temple.
Dadapuram is now an obscure village in the Tindivanam
taluk of South Arcot district about 3.2 kms (two miles) from
Vallimedupettai. Dadapuram is the corruption of Rajarajapuram.
The Siva temple now called Sri Manikantesvaram is named in
the inscription on the temple walls that of Iravikula Manikka
Isvarar, evidently after one of the titles of Rajaraja I. The neigh-
bouring village of Ennayiram is called the taniyur of Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam. If not identical with it Rajarajapuram
might at least have been part of the city-complex of Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam. There are three inscriptions, of the
19th 2 1st and 25th years of Rajaraja I (ARE 20, 17 and
18 of 1919), and one of the fourth year of Rajendra 1 (ARE
19 of 1919), on the walls of this Siva temple. The earliest (of
the nineteenth year of Rajaraja I) mentions a gift of sheep
for a lamp to this temple by a maid-servant of Kundavai
Pirattiyar.
The next, of the twenty-first year of Rajaraja I, refers to
the construction of the three temples of Iravikula Manikka
Isvaram, Kundavai Vinnagar and Kundavai Jinalaya. The
Iravikula Manikka Isvaram is no doubt the modern Sri Mani-
kantesvarar temple. This inscription states that on receipt of a
royal writ, the royal officer ordered the temple treasury to be
examined and the particulars of the gifts of vessels and ornaments
of gold, silver and pearls made to the temples of the locality to
be engraved on stone in the respective temples. The inscription
of the twenty-fifth regnal year of Rajaraja I (ARE 18 of 1919)
mentions a gift of ten lamps made by Parantaka Kundavai
Pirattiyar. The inscription of the fourth year of Rajendra I also
refers to gifts made to the above temple. Thus it is clear that
this Siva temple must have been built of stone sometime before
the nineteenth year of Rajaraja I (a. d. 1004) and we may add
162
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
that the temple of Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur should also have
been built about the same time.
The main shrine consists of a garbhagriha and an ardhamandapa.
The mukhamandapa seems to be a later addition, not elegantly
dovetailed to the original structures ; and even its base mouldings
are different.
The main temple rests on a high and plain upapitham adorned
with pilasters. In the cardinal points there are lions and elephants,
one on each of the three free sides. The mouldings of the
adhishthanam consist of the upanam , jagati, semi-circular (curved)
kumudam , kapotam with kudus and a yali frieze.
There are devakoshtas crowned with makara-toranas on the
outer walls of the garbhagriha and the figures found therein clock-
wise are the following :
1. Ganesa : A double lotus petal pitham , short stout legs, big
belly, the yajnopavita, the necklace, the udarabandha, the drapery,
the broad sash with loops and tassels falling over the right leg
and the semi-circular umbrella above deserve notice.
2. Jnana Dakshinamurti : The jatabhara is elaborately worked
out ; a smile on the lips instead of the usual deep contemplative
look is note-worthy.
3. Vishnu : The four-armed god stands with his proper right
and left hands in abhaya and katyavalambita poses respectively, and
holds sankha and chakra in the other two. He wears kirita-makuta,
necklace, keyuras, bracelets and anklets. The uttariya has a central
loop with a knot on the right side.
4. Durga : The eight-handed goddess stands in the tribhanga
pose with her proper right and left hands in abhaya and katyava-
lambita poses respectively. In the remaining hands she holds a
khadga, a chakra, a sankha, a long bow and a ketaka. She wears
a karanda-makuta, channavira and kesabandha. The central loop
and the side knots and tassels of the drapery are in evidence.
There is a semi-circular chhatra over her head.
Subrahmanyar, Jyeshtha and Bhairavar : These should have
been the deities of the ashta-parivara alayas — a feature of the Early
Chola temples, found even in the temples of Rajaraja I (See
PI 126 and Lalit Kala, 15).
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 1 63
SRI KARI - VARADA PERUMAL TEMPLE 27
About a kilometre and a half to the south-west of the Siva temple
of Sri Manikantesvaram lies the temple of Sri Kari-Varada
Perumal, dedicated to Vishnu, the bestower of grace on Gajendra.
On the evidence of the inscriptions on the walls of this temple
and those of the Manikantesvaram, this temple can be identified
as that of Kundavai Vinnagar Alvar.
The earliest of these — of the twenty-first regnal year of
Rajaraja I — gives a list of vessels and ornaments made of gold,
silver and pearls presented to the temples of Kundavai Vinnagar,
Ravikula Manikkesvaram and Kundavai Jinalaya, “built by the
princess Pirantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, the daughter of
Ponmaligai-tunjina devar, in the city of Rajarajapuramin Nallur
nadu, a sub-division of Venkunrak-kottam. It mentions an
official called Parakrama sola Muvendavelan. The year of this
inscription (a.d.ioo6) may be taken as the probable date of
completion of this stone temple. Of the two inscriptions of the
twenty-third regnal year of Rajaraja I, one mentions a gift
of ninety sheep for a lamp by a maid-servant of the king, and
the other records that the dancing girls attached to both
the temples should accompany the Gods in procession and
sing and dance during the hunting festival of the Vishnu
temple.
An inscription of the twenty-fifth regnal year of Rajaraja I
mentions a gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai
Vinnagar Alvar by Pirantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar. Incidentally,
the inscription states that Senapati Mummudi-sola Brahmamara-
yan was in charge of the management of this temple. This royal
officer is the same person as Sri Krishnan Raman alias Mummudi-
sola Brahmamarayan, the Senapati and the perundaram of Raja-
raja I.
There are two inscriptions of Rajendra I. The first, of the
fourth regnal year, relates to a gift of sheep for ten lamps to the
temple of Kundavai Vinnagar Alvar by Kundavai Pirattiyar
herself. The other, of the eleventh regnal year, stops with the
mention of the name of the king.
164
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The temple consists of the garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa and
the mukhamandapa as in the local Siva temple. It is a dvi-tala
structure surmounted by a semi-circular sikhara (renovated) and
a stupi. There are devakoshtas surmounted by makara-toranas on
all the free sides of the garbhagriha and the ardhamandapa. All the
niches are now empty. There is a fine kodungai (kapotam) adorned
with kudus on the top of the first tala and a yali frieze above it.
Salas and hulas are found on the second tala. Among the vimana
devatas may be mentioned Vishnu on Garuda, and Rajamannar.
Sculptures of Hanuman perhaps adorned the edges; one such
could be seen over the kodungai of the second tala (left side).
(See PI 127 and Lalit Kala 14)
TIRUVAKKARAI
28 SIVALOKAMUDAIYA PARAMASVAMIN TEMPLE
Tiruvakkarai lies on the banks of the Varaha (Ginjee) river
about 19.3 1 kms (12 miles) from Villupuram on the Mailam-
Ginjee road. There is an ancient temple here dedicated to
Chandramoulisvarar; we have dealt with this temple which
could be attributed to Aditya I’s age {Early Chola Art , I, pp.
193-5; Early Chola Temples, pp. 201-2).
It consists of the main central shrine of Chandramoulisvarar,
a mandapa in front of the shrine, an inner prakara, a second prakara
with a gopuram, a 100-pillared mandapa in the second prakara (ARE
190 of 1904), a Siva shrine within the main temple complex called
the Sivalokamudaiya Paramasvamin shrine and a shrine dedi-
cated to Varadaraja Perumal, with a maridapa in front.
Here we are concerned only with the Siva shrine called that
of Sivalokamudaiya Paramasvamin. On the south face of its
base, there is an inscription of the 16th year of Rajaraja-Raja-
kesarivarman (a.d. iooi) recording a gift to the stone temple
of Sivalokamudaiya Paramasvamin, which was built by Udaiya-
pirattiyar Sembiyan Mahadeviyar, queen of Gandaradittadevar
who gave birth to Sri Uttama Chola devar. This further records
many allotments for the various requirements of the temple.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
165
Unfortunately, this record is not complete (ARE 200 of 1904).
Thus this shrine is a foundation of Sembiyan Mahadevi
in the days of Rajaraja I. She lived well into the reign of
Rajaraja I the last record relating to her being dated as late as
A.D. 1006.
TIRUMUKKUDAL
VENKATESA PERUMAL (VISHNU BHATTARAR)
TEMPLE 29
Tirumukkudal in the Uttaramerur taluk of Chingleput
district is picturesquely situated at the confluence of three rivers,
viz., the Palar, the Veghavati and the Cheyyar. The name of the
place means the sacred meeting point of three rivers. It is about
three kms from Palaiya-Sivaram railway station (next to Walaja-
bad) on the Kanchipuram-Chingleput section of the Southern
Railway.
The temple of Venkatesa Perumal dates back to the times
of the Pallavas, as seen from an inscription of the twenty-fourth
year of Vijaya Nripatunga Vikramavarman, found on a slab
in the inner enclosure of this temple. We also learn that the
deity was called Vishnu Bhattarar and that one Ariganda Peru-
manar, son of Kadupatti Kuttaraiyar, gave a gift of gold for a
lamp, which was left in the charge of the assembly of Singapuram
in Urrukkattuk-kottam. The original temple should have thus
belonged to the Late Pallava and Early Chola period.
But the earliest inscriptions found on the walls of the srivimana
relate to Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I. There are two records
of Rajaraja both dated in his twenty-eighth year, 141st day
(ARE 1 7 1 and 178 of 1915). From the first of these records, we
gather that the great assembly of Madhurantaka-chaturvedi-
mangalam (named after Parantaka I) met together in the great
hall called Sembiyan- Mahadevi-peru-mandapam named after the
mother of Uttama Chola and built by the king, and agreed to
pay the taxes on certain temple lands from the interest on a
specified quantity of gold which they had received from the
1 66 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
temple treasury. Kudalur, a northern hamlet of the Chaturvedi-
mangalam, finds mention in the inscription. One of the signa-
tories to the agreement was the accountant of the Samvatsara
variyam (Annual Committee) . The second record also refers to a
gift of gold and land for offerings to the temple by the great
assembly.
There are a number of records of the period of Rajendra I.
The earliest (ARE 175 of 1915) relates to the third regnal year
and mentions a gift of gold on the occasion of the Masi maham
festival. The next one (ARE 176 of 1915) dated in his fourth
year, 352nd day is in respect of a gift of paddy for offerings and
festivals on new moon days, and mentions Rajaraja Vadya-
marayan and the officer Sembangudaiyar. We noticed the title
of Vadyamarayan in connection with the gifts of land made by
Rajaraja I to the talip-pendir and other temple servants, among
whom were a number of musicians and instrumentalists inducted
into the service of the temple of Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur.
One of the fifth year records a gift of 90 sheep for a lamp to
the temple of Tirumukkudal-alvar in Madhurantaka chaturvedi-
mangalam, which was a taniyur in Jayangondasola mandalam
(ARE 169 of 1915). Next comes a seventh year, 229th day record
of Rajendra I which deals with a gift of land for the maintenance
of a flower garden called ‘Rajendra-solan’ (ARE 172 of 1915).
This record says that the assembly received seven padagams of
garden land on behalf of the temple of Maha Vishnu at this place
and arranged for its cultivation. The Vaikkanasas of the temple
received the paddy from the wet lands accruing to the temple
and arranged for the cultivation of the garden themselves. In
order to do this, they employed persons to lift water, dig the earth,
fence the fields and do all the other connected duties ; also, they
agreed to have 7,000 baskets of manure spread on the field.
Two curious conditions connected with this lease of the garden
land to the Vaikkanasas were (1) that the devakanmis, i.e., the priests
of the temple, were always to enjoy the kil-bhogam right and the
Vaikkanasas the lease ( adaivu ) for cultivating ( ulavu ), and (2) that a
specified number of bundles of hay was to be collected from every
tenant of the village by the Vaikkanasas and used for the benefit
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
167
of the garden only, neither being sent out to Kachchippedu nor
sold for private puposes ; and it was laid down that the irrigation
of wet lands from the channel was to be in the usual order, per-
mitting the temple garden the first claim. A ninth year record
refers to a gift of 90 sheep for a lamp from the headman of Mama-
vur Kilinjalur, a hamlet of Vanavan-Mahadevi-chaturvediman-
galam, a taniyur in Jayangondasola-mandalam (ARE 170 of 1915).
The next inscription dated in the 38th day of the ninth year
also deals with a gift of 90 sheep for a lamp, made by one Mandai
Nangai, the senior wife of Perundanam Rajarajan alias Vanavan
Brahmadhirajan (ARE 174 of 1915). An agreement entered
into by certain Vaikhanasas of the temple to use the surplus paddy
due by them, which had been brought to light by an enquiry con-
ducted into the accounts of the temple, for recitation of the
Tiruppadiyam (the term used here for Vaishnavite hymns) in
the temple is the subject matter of the next record which is dated
in the sixteenth year, 32nd day (ARE 183 of 1915). This also
refers to the Sembiyan Mahadevi perumandapam in the middle
of the village of Madhurantaka chaturvedi-mangalam. There are
two records of the eleventh year, one referring to a gift of 113
sheep to the Vennai-kuttar (Lord Krishna) in Tirumukkudal
and the other, also relating to a gift of sheep, to the temple of
Maha Vishnu |(ARE 167 and 168 of 1915).
The ancient temple of Maha Vishnu at Tirumukkudal
received much attention during the reigns of Rajaraja I and
Rajendra I; but the contribution of Vira Rajendra to this temple
deserves special mention. We shall deal with it later under Vira
Rajendra (Pis 128 and 129).
SIVAPURAM
SIVA TEMPLE
(SRI RAJARAJESVARAM UDAIYA MAHADEVAR) 30
Sivapuram lies on the Madras-Bangalore road, branching off
at the thirty-fourth km to the right in a westerly direction towards
Perumbakkam and Kuvam (23 km). It is about seven kms from
1 68 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Kuvam in a northerly direction. The ancient name of this village
was Urogadam* .
On the east wall of the Siva temple here, is an inscription
dated in the eighth year of Rajendra I, which refers to a gift
by the king of 180 sheep, for maintaining two perpetual lamps,
in “the temple of Sri Rajarajesvaram Udaiya Mahadevar,
in the village of Urogadam, in Purisai nadu, in Manayir kottam
in Jayangondasola mandalam”. This inscription reads as follows :
“Svasti sri : tiru manni valara ... mapperu dandarkkonda
kopparakesaripanmarana Sri Rajendra Sola devarkku yandu
8 - avadu jayangonda sola mandalattu manayir kottattu purisai
nattu Urogadattu Sri Rajaraja Isvaramudaiya Mahadevarkku
JJdaiyar Sri Rajendra sola devar vaitta tiru-nanda-vilakku
irandinal adu nurrenpadu.”
Thus this temple was evidently built in the days of Rajaraja I
or begun in his time and completed well before the 8th year of
his son Rajendra I.
There is a seventh year record of Rajendra I’s days found
on the east wall of the central shrine, regarding the digging of
a channel leading from a lake in Siraiyarpudur alias Parantakach-
cheri, to the temple by the Urar of Kuvam alias Madhuranta-
kanallur (ARE 233 of 1961-62). This is the earliest record found
in this temple.
The mahasabha of Solavichchadira-saruppedi-mangalam in
Kanrur nadu sold a piece of land for 10 Rajarajan kasus to Adidasa
Chandesvarar of Sri Rajarajesvaram in Urogadam, the proceeds
from which were to be used by the tiruvunnaligai udaiyar to feed
one Sivayogi at the time of making offerings to the god (twenty-
sixth year of Rajendra I — - ARE 226 of 1961-62).
There are a number of inscriptions of Rajendra I, all relating
to his twenty-sixth regnal year (ARE 227 to 232 of 1961-62).
Some interesting details are gleaned from these records relating to
the arrangement made for providing for the services in the temple.
♦This place should not be confused with another Sivapuram, five kms south-east of Kumba-
konam in the Tanjavur district associated with the Nataraja bronze whisked away to U.S.A.
and sold for about Rs 70 lakhs (PI 407). The latter has been sung by the Tamil Saints.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
169
The gold deposited with them at different times for services and
offerings to the deity were invested by the temple authorities
with various mahasabhas and the urar of Nirvelur in Nirvelur
nadu in Urrukkattuk-kottam. All these local bodies which received
the gold agreed to supply to the granary of the temple annually
a specified quantity of paddy in terms of the measure called
Rajakesari, as interest on the gold.
From a record of Rajadhiraja I dated in his twenty-seventh
regnal year (a.d. 1044-45), we g et to know of the various cate-
gories of temple servants. According to this inscription, a large
quantity of paddy received as kanikadan from Tiruppuniyettam,
a devadana village attached to Sri Rajarajesvaram in Sivapuram,
was ear-marked for food offerings and for distribution among
the various servants of the temple, who were as follows : ( 1 ) the
persons engaged in the worship ; (2) the tiruvunnaligai-udaiyar ;
(3) six manigal ; (4) 24 Patiyilar ; (5) the panchacharyar ; (6) twenty
uvachchar including the Patayyan ; (7) the musicians playing on
the vina and the udukkai ; (8) the reciter of Tiruppadiyam ; (9)
the tiruvaykkelvi-udaiyan ; (10) twenty-two chauri bearers ( kavari -
pinakkal) ; ( 1 1 ) four persons who prepared the pallit-tongal (umbrel-
las) ; (12) the accountant ; (13) the treasurer ; (14) four body-
guards ; (15) four garland-makers ; (16) four lamp-bearers
and (17) four standard-bearers. One cannot help noticing the
similarity of this set-up to the elaborate arrangements made by
the ruler’s grand-father Rajaraja I in the Tanjavur temple.
The temple is a compact all-stone structure which consists
of the garbhagriha, the antarala, the ardhamandapa and the mukha-
mandapa. The garbhagriha measures 3.60 ms square externally
and 2.05 ms square internally. The srivimana rises on a low adhish-
thanam consisting of an upanam, a tri-patta kumudam, a vanmanam
and a van, while the wall surface is divided into three segments
by four pilasters. The devakoshta images are Ganapati, Dakshina-
murti, Lingodbhavar, Brahma (a later replacement) and Durga.
The superstructure starts with an entablature containing
the bhutagana frieze below the cornice and a yali frieze above it.
The temple is an eka-tala structure with a circular griva, and a
sikhara all in stone, with stucco overlaid, which is mostly gone.
170 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The griva-koshtas have figures which are covered over with lichen
and cannot be identified. Around the griva, there are four very
lively nandis in the four corners (Pis 130 to 136 ).
In the mukhamandapa, there are two dvarapalas adjoining the
entrance to the ardhamandapa , both stately figures of Rajaraja I
style. In addition, there are some fine loose sculptures, kept
inside the mandapa, of Chandesvarar, Surya and Bhairavar. They
must once have occupied their respective positions in subshrines.
The temple is in a bad state of repair and requires to be conserved.
The temple belongs to the days of Rajaraja I.
ARPAKKAM
ADIKESAVA PERUMAL
(TIRUVIRA - VINNAGAR ALVAR)
31 TEMPLE
On the Kanchipuram-Uttaramerur road, after crossing the
Veghavati at Kanchi and the Palar four kilometres further south,
one proceeds another four kilometres to reach Arpakkam ;
it lies between the Palar and the Cheyyar.
In this village, there are two important temples, with rich
historical associations, one belonging to the Middle Chola period
and the other to the Later Chola period. The former is that of
Adikesava Perumal which bore in the ancient days the name
of Tiruvira-vinnagar Alvar temple, and the latter the temple
of Tiruvalisvaram, or Tiruviramesvaram. We are here concerned
with the Adikesava Perumal temple.
On the north wall of the temple is an incomplete record (ARE
: 39 of [ 9 2 3) of Rajaraja I dated in his eighteenth year, registering
a gift by purchase of a tank and land, made tax-free, for offerings
to the god Tiruvira-vinnagar Alvar in the name of the queen
Sembiyan Mukkokilanadigal alias Kannara-Nachchi Pidara Nan-
gai, by a certain Kodandaraman of Panivagamangalam of Chola
mandalam. From this inscription we come to know the name of
a queen of Rajaraja I not generally known, and the name would
indicate that she was a Kannara princess. Another inscription
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
171
of Rajendra I relating to his twenty-seventh year, registers a
gift of land by the residents of Arpakkam for the maintenance
of seven musicians for service in the temple of Tiruvira-vinnagar
Alvar (ARE 145 of 1923). On the south wall of the temple is
a record of Udaiyar Sri Rajendra Choladeva (II), relating to
his second year registering a gift of land for two perpetual
lamps to the god Tiruvira-vinnagar Alvar by queen Trailokya
Mahadevi, one on behalf of her mother Umai Nangai and the other
on behalf of Vikramakesari Pallavaraiyar (ARE 138 of 1923).
There are two records of Sakalaloka-chakravartin Rajanarayana
Sambuvarayan both dated in his sixteenth year registering a gift
of land in Mungilappattu as tirunamattukkani by certain indi-
viduals of Magaral and its later conversion into a sarvamanya
gift by the residents ( nattavar ) of Vayalaikkavur, to the god
Kesava Perumal of Arpakkam in Eyil nadu, a subdivision of
Eyir-kottam (ARE 140 and 14 1 of 1923). In the fourth year of
Vijaya Gandagopala, one kalanju of gold is given as a gift for
burning a twilight lamp in the temple by the headman of Anangur
in Paniyur nadu, a subdivision of Naduvil nadu alias Rajaraja
valanadu (ARE 142 of 1923).
This temple would appear to have come into existence some
time before the eighteenth year of Rajaraja I (a.d. 1003) and
was possibly renovated after the days of Rajendra II which
explains the misplacement of some of the stones containing the
inscriptions of the first two rulers of the Middle Chola period.
SOLAPURAM
SIVA TEMPLE (RAJARAJISVARAM) 32
Solapuram is now a small place adjoining Vellore, the head-
quarters of North Arcot district. There are some ruined temples
here.
On the base of the local ruined Siva temple, there are a num-
ber of inscriptions relating to the Middle and Later Chola periods.
Fhe earliest inscription relates to the twenty-seventh year of
Rajaraja I, but it is unfortunately incomplete. However it
172
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
mentions the name of the village where the temple is situated
as Uyyakkondan-Solapuram in Vadakkil Vangamugai nadu in
the district of Pangala nadu in Jayangondasola mandalam, and
refers to some merchants presumably making donations to the
temple (ARE 421 of 1902; SII, VIII, 7). There is also an inscrip-
tion dated in the sixth year of Rajendra I. In an inscription dated
in the twenty-fourth regnal year of Koluttunga I, the deity
is called the Mahadevar of Uyyakkondan-Solapuram (ARE
425 of 1902). In another inscription dated in his thirty-second
year, we get the name of the temple as Rajarajisvaram said to
be located in Uyyakkondan-Solapuram in Vadakkil Vanga-
mugai nadu, a subdivision of Pangala nadu ; it relates to a gift
for a lamp (ARE 423 of 1902; SII, VIII, 8).
The ancient name of this village was Kattuttumbur, and
after the conquest of this region by the Cholas, it was rechrist-
ened Uyyakkondan-Solapuram after a surname of Rajaraja I ;
the ruined Siva temple at Solapuram was a foundation of the
days of Rajaraja I and named Rajarajisvaram after him (see
Early Chola Art /, p. 18, and also Early Chola Temples, pp. 89-91).
KALAKATTUR
33 AGNISVARAR TEMPLE
Kalakkattur is a hamlet in the Kanchipuram taluk of Chingle-
put district. It lies about two kms to the right of the road from
Kanchipuram to Uttaramerur at the seventh km stone and is situ-
ated at the base of the bund of a lake called Putteri. In this village,
there is an Early Chola temple standing amidst paddy fields.
The temple is a karrali (stone temple) facing east. It consists
of the garbhagriha, 4 ms square, with recesses in the antarala
part, with a later closed mandapa having an entrance to the south,
which is a square of side 5 - 5 ° ms - The garbhagriha has no super-
structure now. There is a ruined madil.
There are a shrine for Ganapati to the east of the mandapa
and a Nandi in front of the temple in the same axis as the Linga
of the garbhagriha.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i's TIME
173
The devakoshta sculptures are of interest. Ganapati andDurga
are in the south and north wall niches of the antarala; Dakshina-
murti, Ardhanari and Brahma are respectively in the south,
west and north niches of the garbhagriha. All the sculptures are
of high quality and could be assigned to the ninth century a.d.
The presence of Ardhanari in the rear devakoshta indicates that
the garbhagriha and these sculptures should be assigned to the
period of Aditya I (Pis 137 to 140).
Seven inscriptions have been copied from this village. The
earliest of them is one on a slab set up near the Pidari temple.
It belongs to the seventh regnal year of Parthivendradhipati-
varman, the Chola prince and viceroy in this region during the
period prior to the accession of Rajaraja I, who was in a large
measure responsible for the reconquest of the region of Tondai-
mandalam over-run and ruled by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna
III (see my Early Chola Temples , pp. 204-205). This record (ARE
1 17 of 1923) refers to a gift of land, after purchase, for mid-day
offerings to the temple of Subrahmanyar at Kalakattur by one
Chakrapani Venkadan of the same village which is given the
alternate name of Attinamach-chaturvedimangalam and is said
to be located east of the Chandramegha-tatakam — presumably
the lake now called the Putteri on whose bund the village and the
temple are situated.
What is now called the Agnisvarar temple is mentioned in
the inscriptions on its walls as the temple of Uruni Alvar. There
are six inscriptions in the temple, but none of them is a foundation
inscription. Of these, three belong to the reign of Rajaraja I.
The earliest of them is one of his fourteenth regnal year (ARE 121
of 1923). We learn that Kalakattur was a sala bhoga (a feeding
house) of Tiruvegambapuram*, that the king himself desired the
gift of only one lamp in this temple “for the prosperity of all the
kings and of the world at large” — echoing the traditional age-long
prayer of every pious Hindu, “sarve janaha sukhino bhavantu” ,
*Brahmadesam, in Cheyyar taluk of North Arcot district, bore in the ancient days the name
of Rajamalla-chaturvedimangalam, which was a part of Tiruvegambapuram, in Damar-kottam
(ARE i8g of 1915).
1 74
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
but that provision was made for two perpetual lamps by Vennaip-
puttur Udaiyar Kandan Maindan of the village of Kalakattur
in Eri-kil nadu, included in Kaliyur kottam.
The next inscription, which is of his seventeenth year is frag-
mentary, but the previous donor figures in this also (ARE 118
of 1923); it registers a gift by Madevan Kolambattadigal of
Kusappur, in Pulal kottam of Tondai Nadu.
There are two inscriptions of Rajendra I, both of his third
regnal year. In one (ARE 120 of 1923), Kalakkattur is said to
be a sala bhoga of Tiruvegambapuram (see no. 121 above) in
Eri-kil nadu. The other (ARE 122 of 1923) registers a gift of
five cows for supplying curds to the god Uruni Alvar of Kalak-
kattur by the Madhyastha of Nallarrur in Sengattu kottam.
The existence of three temples in this village — the Pidari
temple, the Subrahmanyar temple and the Agnisvarar temple —
is thus brought out by the local inscriptions. Though the earliest
inscription concerning it is one of Rajaraja I’s, we can assign the
Agnisvarar temple to the period of Aditya I of the Early Chola
age based on the evidence of the sculpture of Ardhanarisvarar
placed in the devakoshta of the central shrine.
SENGUNRAM
34 JAYANGONDASOLISVARAM
Sengunram is in the Gudiyattam taluk of North Arcot dis-
trict. There is an ancient Siva temple here which is now deserted
and without worship. This is a dated temple which came into
being in the days of Rajaraja I and was named after one of his
surnames.
From four inscriptions that were recorded in this temple in
the days of the Middle and the Later Cholas, we learn that the
temple bore the name of Jayangondasolisvaram. In the twenty-
ninth regnal year of Rajaraja I, one Damodara Bhatta of Kada-
langudi in Rajendrasimha valanadu in Chola mandalam made a
gift of 20 pons to the merchants of Jayangonda-solapuram, which
was a city in Andi nadu, a sub-division of Perumbanappadi
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME 1 75
in Jayangondasola mandalam. The gift was meant for the
purchase of 1 80 sheep for a perpetual lamp to the temple, which
is called in the inscription Jayangonda solisvaram. Even the liquid
measure adopted by the temple and possibly in the neighbour-
hood also was called ‘Jayangonda solaraiyan’ (ARE 149 of 1921).
In the seventh regnal year of Rajendra I, a similar gift of 20
kalanjus of gold was made by a citizen for two perpetual lamps
in the temple (ARE 151 of 1921). Here again the name of the
temple is given as Jayangonda solisvaram. We also learn that,
about the same time, the merchants of Jayangonda-solapuram,
which bore the alternate name of Vikkur, met in a hall pre-
sumably built by the chief of the city, and made a gift of
land free of taxes, for the services in the temple (inscription
dated in the seventh regnal year of Rajendra I — ARE 152 of
1921). There is a fragmentary inscription of the time of Vikrama
Chola.
TIRUMALAI
KUNDAVAI JINALAYA 35
Polur is an important station on the Villupuram-Katpadi
rail link of the Southern Railway. Sixteen kms (10 miles) to
its east is the village of Tirumalai, which was an important Jaina
centre in the Pallava and Chola days. Here is a hill known in the
local inscriptions as Vaigai (or Vaigavur) Tirumalai. Some of
the inscriptions refer to a Kundavai Jinalaya.
This Jaina centre, so we learn from a Later Chola inscription,
was ruled by a Yavanika, called Elini of Vanji (which is to be
identified with modern Karur), during the early Sangam period.
This chief is claimed to have set up images of Yaksha and Yakshini
on the Tirumalai hill, which bore the Sanskrit name of Arnasu-
giri and the Tamil name of En-guna-virat-tirumalai.
The earliest Chola inscription at Tirumalai relates to a gift
of gold in the third regnal year of Parantaka I (a.d. 910), by two
residents of Kaduttalai for feeding a devotee in the Jaina temple
at Vaigavur. We next hear of a gift of a lamp to the Yaksha of
176
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Tirumalai made in a.d. 959 by a servant of the Rashtrakuta king
Krishna III.
Next comes a record of Rajaraja I dated in his twenty-first
year, which is found on a rock in front of the gopuram at the
base of the Tirumalai hill (SII, I, 66) . It mentions that a certain
Gunavira-mamunivan built a sluice in the local reservoir.
There are two inscriptions of Rajendra I. Both of them relate
to his twelfth regnal year. One of them records a gift to the
temple Vaigavur-Tirumalai which is therein called Kundavai
Jinalaya, i.e., the temple dedicated by Kundavai to the Jina
(SII, I, 67).
According to this inscription, “Chamuddappai, the wife of
the merchant Nannappaiyan, resident of Perumbanappadi,
alias Karaivarimalliyur, gave a perpetual lamp to the temple of
Sri Kundavai Jinalaya (on) the holy mountain at the Pallich-
chandam (a village belonging to the Jaina temple) of Vaigavur
in Mugai nadu, a division in the middle of Pangala nadu in
Jayangondasola mandalam. dwenty kasus were given for one
lamp and ten kasus for the sacred food-offerings”.
At the foot of the hillock is a shrine in a natural cave under
a ledge of the rock mentioned earlier. It is likely that this cave
temple was renovated at about the time when Kundavai built
her Jinalaya and reconsecrated the sculptures of Yaksha and
Yakshini held to have been set up in the days of Elini, the ancient
Chera ruler. There are paintings on the walls of the cave, which
might also have been carried out at Kundavai’s instance; they
appear to have been overlaid on an earlier layer of paintings.
Patches of the latter are still to be seen in the background.
Presumably, the older paintings had mostly faded and Kundavai
had them repainted. The centre of attention in the paintings is
a wheel of victory ( Vijaya-chakra ) whose nave is occupied by
the Jina flanked by attendant deities. What the Dharma-chakra
is to the Buddhists, the Vijaya-chakra is to the Jainas. Such a
wheel is mentioned by the Jaina ruler Kharavela of Kalinga
m his inscription at the Khandagin-Udayagiri caves near
Bhubanesvar in Orissa. There is also a Jaina Vijaya-chakra
painted on the ceiling of the Jaina cave temple at Sittannavasal
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
177
in the Pudukkottai district* (seventh century a.d.).
In Puduppadi in Walajapet taluk, North Arcot district,
there are a Siva temple and a Vishnu temple (called Vedaranya
Perumal temple), belonging to the Middle Chola period. Besides,
there was a Jaina temple built during the days of Rajaraja I and
named Iravikula Manikkap-perumpalli, after a surname of
Rajaraja I. Nothing beyond a slab of stone containing the
inscription, “Svasti-sri Iravikula manikkap-perumpalli” , remains
of the temple (ARE 225 of 1905). Puduppadi, like Dadapuram
and Olagapuram, must have been an important centre in Jayan-
gondasola mandalam where sectarian rivalries were then un-
known (Pis 141 and 142).
Thus, Kundavai Jinalaya was a foundation of the days of
Rajaraja I. The paintings in the lower cave require our attention.
MELPADI
CHOLISVARAM (ARINJIGAI-ISVARAM) 36
Melpadi is situated 25.60 kms (16 miles) south-west of Chittoor
and 9.60 kms (6 miles) north of Tiruvallam, on the western bank
of the Niva (or Ponni) river. The region of Melpadi, which was
a part of the Chola kingdom during the time of Parantaka I,
was lost to the Rashtrakutas after the battle of Takkolam (a.d.
949), and would appear to have been firmly reannexed to the
Chola empire only after Rajaraja I came to the throne (a.d.
985)-
Cholendra Simhesvaram
There is a temple in the village, dedicated to Somanathe-
svarar. Though it was rebuilt and given the new name of Cholen-
dra-simhesvaram in the days of Rajaraja I, it dates back in
fact to those of Parantaka I. From an inscription of the fourteenth
year, 258th day of a king referred to as Konerinmaikondan (ARE
101 of 1921), which should also be attributed to Rajaraja I,
•Lalit Kala No. 9, pp 30-54.
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
178
we learn that the name of the city changed from Merpadi alias
Viranarayanapuram into Rajasrayapuram after a surname of
Rajaraja I and that gifts of lands located in several villages were
made to the Mahadevar of the Cholendra-simhesvarar temple
constructed there by the king.
Arinjigai Isvaram
Arinjigai or Arinjaya was the youngest son of Parantaka I
and the grandfather of Rajaraja I. Perhaps he fell fighting in
or near this place, and consequently came to be referred to later
as Arrur-tunjina-devar.
Sometime before his twenty-ninth regnal year (a.d. 1014)
Rajaraja I constructed a temple called after him that of Arinjigai
Isvarattu Mahadevar, as a pallippadi (memorial sepulchral temple),
at the place where the mortal remains of Arinjigai devar were
buried (ARE 86 of 1889 and SII, III, 17; See also Early Chola
Temples, pp. 299-302).
It may be of interest to mention that in the days of Rajendra I,
its management was in the hands of Lakulisa Pandita, the
head of the matha of Saivas of the Pasupata sect.
ATTUR
37 (I) SOMESVARAR TEMPLE
(II) PALLIKONDAR SHRINE
Attur in Tirunelveli district is now a small village located
in picturesque surroundings on the banks of the Tamraparni
very near where it joins the sea. It is at a distance of about 64 kms
from the district headquarters of Tirunelveli, in an easterly
direction. The ancient Pandyan capital of Korkai is only five
kms from this place. There is an ancient Siva temple in this
village dedicated to Somanathar ; now, however, the deity goes
under the name of Somesvarar.
The temple contains a large number of inscriptions ranging
from the days of Rajaraja I to the sixteenth century a.d. Those
of the Imperial Cholas and their Chola-Pandya viceroys cover
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’S TIME
179
almost half the number of the total of ninety and odd records,
the remaining relating mostly to the Pandyas of the post-Chola
era.
There are ten inscriptions of the days of Rajaraja I, which
are the earliest to be found in this temple. They are all engraved
on the walls of the central shrine. A twenty-first year inscription
which is the earliest of them, records a gift of sheep for a lamp to
the temple by Kandan Sittan of Alangudi in Vandalai-velur in
Arumolideva valanadu (ARE 388 of 1929-30). Three others
belong to his twenty-second regnal year; one of them stops
with the mention of Somanatha devar alias Ten Tiruppuvanam
Udaiyar; another incomplete piece in the same characters
mentions a merchant Velan Teran alias Purusha-manikka Setti
(ARE 392 of 1929-30). The next record seems to state that
tiruvunnaligaiyar agreed to provide for offerings to the deity with
the income from the land endowed, by purchase, to the temple
by the king’s regiment called Arulmolideva terinda parivarattar
(ARE 419 of 1929-30). The third one of the same year registers
a gift of land as kudiningaa-devadanam for the expenses of the
tiruchchennadai of the images of Olakka-Vitankar and Nitya-
sundarar in the temple of Somanatha devar alias Ten Tiruppu-
vanam Udaiyar at Arrur, a brahmadeya in Kuda nadu, in the
subdivision of Rajaraja valanadu by Bharadvajan Madhava
Udaiya Divakaran of Kalitava-mangalam, with himself as a
tenant (ARE 409 of 1929-30). There are two records of the
next year, the twenty-third. One of them mentions a sale of
land made tax-free by the assembly of Kiranur for worship
and offerings to the images of Rajaraja vinnagar Pallikonda-
rulina-devar (Vishnu), Durga-Bhagavati, Saptamatrikas, Kshetra-
palar and Ganapati set up in the temple of Somanathadevar
alias Ten Tiruppuvanam Udaiyar at Arrur-Sendamangalam
(ARE 415 of 1929-30). The other inscription which on the basis
of the characters should belong to the time of Rajaraja I refers
to a gift of sheep by a person from Parantaka valanadu (ARE
390 of 1929-30). In the twenty-fourth year, a lady makes a
gift of sheep for a perpetual lamp (ARE 386 of 1929-30). Another,
of the twenty-seventh year also refers to a gift of sheep for a
l80 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
lamp (ARE 397 of 1929-30). A twenty-eighth year record
mentions a gift of land after purchase from the uravar of
Varandivayal, for the mid-day offerings to the image of puram-
balai Pillaiyar Ganapatiyar in the temple of Somanathadevar
alias Ten Tiruppuvanam Udaiyar at Arrur-Sendamangalam
(ARE 387 of 1929-30).
Surprisingly, there are only five records of the days of
Rajendra I, three in his third year and the rest in his fifth year.
Of his third year inscriptions, one is incomplete, another refers to
a gift of sheep and the third which is on the east wall of the
Perumal shrine, registers a sale of land to the temple by the
assembly, the karanmai-tenants and Nakkan Tukkadichchan
(ARE 391, 399 and 471 of 1929-30). The two records of the
fifth year, one of the 200th day and the other of the 254th day,
both refer to gifts of sheep for perpetual lamps from persons in
Ghola mandalain.
Next we have three records of the days of Vira Rajendra;
the fourth year inscription mentions the provision made for offer-
ings in the temple of Somanathadevar every Sunday by a certain
Narayana Tiruvengadam alias Atula-vichchadira-Muvendave-
lan, the headman of Attur- The fifth year record registers a
gift of land, after purchase, by Virasir Muvendavelan, the
headman of Karuppur and a resident of Vetchiyur, a village
in Serrur kurram, a sub-division of Arumolideva valanadu in
Chola mandalam, for providing on the day of Ayilyam, the natal
star of the king, special worship to the several deities in the temple.
A seventh year record deals with a gift of money to the aga-
naligaiyar for a twilight lamp in the temple by a certain Arangan
Sodi, a Vellala of Tidarcheri in Pampur nadu (ARE 401, 389
and 400 of 1929-30).*
* Among the Later Chola inscriptions, almost all relate to Kulottunga I, beginning with
his twelfth regnal year. The earliest, records a gift of sheep and of stands for two perpetual lamps
to the temple of Somanathadevar alias Ten Tiruppuvanam Udaiyar by a certain Siraman Aditta
Pidaran alias Nulambadirajan (ARE 407 of 1929-30). The next record relates to his twentieth
year; it gives the details of certain lands sold to the temple by' the assembly and the karanmai
tenants of Arrur-Sendamangalam, the latter agreeing to pay the taxes on the land (ARE 448 of
1929-30). From a record of his twenty-fourth year, we get to know that Arrur in Kuda nadu
becomes a part of Uttamasola valanadu. A thirty-sixth year record gives the information that
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME l8l
Apart from these records, there are others given with the
regnal years of the Chola Pandya viceroys. Three relate to
Jatavarman alias Sundara Chola Pandya deva and are of his
sixth, twenty- first and thirtieth years; the first refers to a gift
of buffaloes by a Vellala of the village for a perpetual lamp ; the
second, found in a random stone in the pavement of the Soma-
sundari Amman shrine, records the provision made by Bhara-
dvajan Lokaditya Kuttan of Arrur for a perpetual lamp; the
third records a gift of sheep and a lamp-stand for a perpetual
lamp by Pandan Kattangan of the Sundara Sola Pandya terinda
palayaval (a unit of the army) (ARE 416, 473 and 395 of 1929-30).
Similarly, of another viceroy, Maravarman Vikrama Chola
Pandya deva, we have four records; one, whose year is lost,
records a gift of buffaloes for a perpetual lamp ; another of his
twenty-second year, also deals with a gift for a perpetual lamp
to the temple, which is here said to be in Arrur in Rajadhiraja
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya of Kuda nadu, a sub-
division of Uttamasola valanadu in Rajaraja Pandi Nadu,
by a native of Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu; a third, of his
twenty-fifth year, states that the Sivabrahmanas of the temple
agreed to provide for special offerings and worship to the God
one Kuditangi Mummudi solan alias Jayangondasola Vesalipadi of Arasur in Arumolideva
valanadu of Chola mandalam bought land from two residents of Tirukkadavur, a brakmadeyam
in Talaippanai in Kuda nadu, and gifted it to the temple for the sacred bath of the deity with
water from the Tanporundam (Tamraparni) (ARE 402 of 1929-30). A thirty-eighth year
inscription is found on a pillar in the antarala of the central shrine, and registers the sale of land
made tax-free to the temple by seven persons of Korkai alias Madhurantakanallur in Kuda
nadu (ARE 422 of 1929-30). This inscription is preceded by an incomplete inscription of
Vira Rajendra. On another pillar in the same place is a forty-eighth year inscription of the
same ruler; it registers a gift of land tax-free to the temple by two residents of the village for
lamps and for offerings to the deity on the day of Kartigai (ARE 422 of 1929-30). An undated
record in Sanskrit verse (in Grantha) gives the surname of Jayadhara for Kulottunga I and
records a gift of a gold aureola and money for two lamps to the temple by the minister Mana-
vatara (Naralokavira) .
There are a large number of Pandyan records ; briefly covering them, we learn that in Arrur-
Sendamangalam there was a Vishnu temple called Tirunarayana Vinnagar, that in the days of
Maravarman Sundara Pandya “who was pleased to hand back to the Cholas the Chola country”,
the place bore the alternate name of Avanipasekhara chaturvedimangalam, that Korkai was
called Madhurodayanallur, that in the days of Maravarman Kulasekhara, a mandapa was built
in, and a flower-garden endowed to, this temple by one Kesavan Idaiyarru Isvaramudaiyan,
and that Arrur was called Venru-mudisudiya-Sundara-Pandiyapattinam in Parantaka valanadu
(ARE of 454, 1929-30).
MIDDLE CLIOLA TEMPLES
l 82
Somanathadevar on the days of the new moon and to feed pilgrims
on those days, with the interest on the endowment made by
Udaiya Divakaran Trimurti of Madevimangalam in Panaiyur
nadu, a sub-division of Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu in Chola-
mandalam. And finally, one, also of his twenty-fifth year, says
that the Sivabrahmanas belonging to the aganaligai of the temple
agreed to provide on every amavasya day special offerings to the
deity and to feed 15 Sivabrahmanas in the temple with the produce
of the land endowed by a certain Kandan Aiyanar alias Nripa-
sikhamani Muvendavelar of Mangalakkal, who purchased it from
the assembly of Rajadhiraja chaturvedimangalam ; this record
mentions a unit of measure for grains called the Somanathan-
marakkal (ARE 403, 406, 417 and 393 of 1929-30).
We may conclude that this temple came into existence
during the days of Rajaraja I after he had annexed the Pandyan
territory and that the Pallikonda Perumal shrine in the temple
came into existence before the twenty-third year of Rajaraja I.
The Amman shrine came into existence during the Pandyan
days.
The main shrine of Attur, viz., that of Somanatha devar consists
of a garbhagriha, an antarala, and an ardhamandapa with a circum-
ambulatory passage and a tiruch-churru-maligai. In the front there
is a covered hall ( rnahamandapa ) supported by three rows of six
pillars each. The garbhagriha and the antarala constitute one
unit on a common plinth, while the ardhamandapa is at a lower
level, from which the antarala is reached by a flight of three
steps. There are four pillars in the ardhamandapa in the traditional
Middle Chola style, round and capped by a plain corbel with
bevelled edges. On the outer front of the ardhamandapa one on
either side of the entrance, are two beautifully carved Rajaraja-
style dvarapalas, measuring about 1.22 ms (four feet) in height.
There are no niche figures in the three niches of the garbhagriha,
which are shallow, very much in the Pandyan style, with little
scope for housing any koshta deities. There is a sparsely distri-
buted bhutagana frieze below the cornice. On the southern side,
however, where there ought to be a Dakshinamurti niche
figure, we have a modern structure to house an old and fine
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME 1 83
stone sculpture of Yoga-Dakshinamurti. Away from the dvara-
palas and in front of the eastern wall of the ardhamandapa , there
are some fine bronzes.
Sculptures
(i) Stone : From east to west along the southern wall in the
tiruch-churru-maligai , there is a fine image of Jvaraharadevar,
facing north, followed by the sculptures of the 63 Saiva saints;
further west along this wall, we have an excellent set of sculp-
tures in stone of the Saptamatrikas, with Virabhadra (?) and
Ganapati bracketing the group, facing each other and at right
angles to the row of the seven Matrikas. In the south-western
corner of the prakar a, facing east, is an image of Ganapati. Corres-
pondingly on the north-western corner, we have a fine set of
stone images of Karttikeya and His two Consorts, facing east.
In the north-eastern corner, adjoining the northern wall and
facing south is an image of Bhairavar. On the inner side of the
eastern wall of the mahamandapa are images of Chandra in the
north and Surya in the south. Close to Surya and near the
doorway of the mahamandapa leading to the later-date agra-
mandapa is an image of Adhikara-nandi.
(ii) Bronzes : There are in this temple some of the finest bronzes
of Pandi Nadu. The most captivating pieces among them are
those of Nataraja, Sivakami, Manikkavasagar and Karaikkal
Ammaiyar, all in one group, in a chamber to the north-east
of the circumambulatory passage.
The Nataraja image measures 112 cms (3' 8") from the
base of the padmapitham to the top of the jatha, which is beauti-
fully shaped and from tip to tip of the fingers of the outstretched
arms breadthwise it measures 81 cms ( 2 ' 8"). From the top
of the aureola ( ardhachandra element) to the base of the bhadra-
pitham it measures 160 cms (5" 3"); there are 12 tongues of
flame on either side of the ardhachandra , which rests on two
pillars ( kals ) . Nataraja wears the jathamakuta, on which are the
crescent moon and Ganga-Bhattari; He wears the usual main
in the upper right arm and the fire in the upper left arm; the
lower right in varada pose has the coiled snake on it while the
fourth arm is in the gajahasta posture. He stands with His right
184 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
foot on Muyalagan who is prostrate on his belly and holds a snake
by the neck which lies along the entire length of Muyalagan’s
body. He is on a padma pitham placed on a bhadra pitham.
The equally beautiful and majestic image of Sivakami Amman
standing on a padma pitham with a nilotpala in the right hand and
the other arm falling gracefully and with a fine natural bend
down the length of the left thigh, measures 84 cms ( 2 ' 9") . Both the
Nataraja and Sivakami images rest on a common bhadra pitham.
To the proper right of Nataraja, we have an image of Manik-
kavasagar with the chevudi in the left arm and the right arm
is in the chin-mudra pose. We have a small icon of Karaikkal
Ammaiyar with sagging breasts and shrunken belly and holding
cymbals in both hands. This entire group constitutes a fine set
of bronzes in the true Chola tradition, installed in a Chola
temple built in the Pandya country. The style of these sculptures
may be termed Chola-Pandya. There are also two beautiful Soma-
skandar metal images and a Tani-Amman. Besides, there are
the icons of Appar, Tirunavukkarasar, Sundarar, Astradevar
and Chandesvarar. Flanking the stone dvarapalas referred to
earlier, there are, on the south, metal images of Bhikshatanar
and of Kevala-Chandrasekharar. North of the dvarapala are
images of Subrahmanyar and His two Consorts. All these are
exquisite specimens of Chola-Pandya bronzes of the period
(Pis 143 to 155).
Inscriptions refer to the gift of a number of icons to the
temple of Somanathar. Mentioned among them are images of
Uloga Vitankar and Nityasundarar. While the former could
be identified with the Somaskandar in the rear verandah adjoining
the Ganapati icon, the identification of the latter presents some
difficulty. Could it be the other Somaskandar image, on the
northern side of the rear verandah?
Inscriptions again refer to the gift in the days of Rajaraja I
of two villages,^., Varandiyal and Kiranur for various services
of the temple; they could be identified with Varandivel, a suburb
of Attur, which is less than a kilometre from the temple and
with another suburb which goes by its old name of Kiranur. These
places are at present hamlets of Attur.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
PALLIKONDA-PERUMAL SHRINE
185
(ii)
What is of special importance about this temple is the exist-
ence of a shrine on the northern verandah of the prakara , dedi-
cated to Pallikonda-Perumal, similar to the one at the Nelliyappar
temple at Tirunelveli (see below) . The shrine is outside the wall
of the tiruch-churru-maligai, the entrance to it being on its wall
and the garbhagriha being in a cella built outside, with a wagon-
shaped vimana. This shrine was built by Rajaraja I. The recum-
bent Vishnu has His head to the west and the feet to the east
and lies on a serpent whose coils however, are not to be seen
above the floor level; the hood (with five heads) is a modern
replacement. Sridevi and Bhudevi are seated. There is no Brahma.
In the same chamber, on the western side, there are four bronze
images of exquisite quality and finish, of Rama, Vishnu, Sridevi
and dancing Krishna. The image of Rama is fascinating. His
two arms are in the posture of holding the bow and arrow,
which however, are not there now. He wears patra-kundalas. These
icons measure 89 cms (2' 11"), 6g cms (2' 3"), 58 cms (T n"),
and 61 cms (2') respectively.
TIRUNELVELI
NELLIYAPPAR TEMPLE (PALLIKONDAR SHRINE) 38
Within the limits of the township of Tirunelveli, the head-
quarters of the district bearing the same name, is a temple dedi-
cated to Nelliyappar. As mentioned in the sthalapuranam of the
Kailasapati temple at Gangaikondan, this is held to be one
of the three early temples founded by Agastya and to have been
established in a venu (bamboo) forest. In token of this origin,
we still have a clump of bamboo bushes in the outer prakara ;
bamboo is also the sthala-vriksha of the Nelliyappar temple.
The temple, which dates possibly earlier than Rajaraja I,
consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala and an ardhamandapa, and
underwent considerable modification during the reign of Raja-
raja I. The garbhagriha and the maharnandapa have been lop-sidedly
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
1 86
widened to enable the erection of a sanctum for housing the
stone sculpture of the reclining Vishnu (Pallikondar) of massive
dimensions, to the north of the main sanctum and the antarala.
Correspondingly, the ardhamandapa is asymmetrical with re-
ference to the main shrine of Nelliyappar; the sanctum and the
antarala of the latter and the sanctum of the Pallikondar shrine
together share a common ardhamandapa , which has three rows of
three pillars; the bathing platform in the ardhamandapa , however,
being along the same axis as the Nelliyappar sanctum.
We are here concerned with the Pallikondar shrine only,
it being an addition made by Rajaraja I to the Nelliyappar
temple. The ardhamandapa also is attributable to his age.
To the north of the Nelliyappar sanctum is the chamber
housing the image of Pallikondar (Vishnu in the anantasayanam
pose) with his head to the west; the entrance to the chamber
is on its eastern wall. The divine serpent (with its five-headed
hood) is protecting the head of the Vishnu image; in front of
this recumbent figure is an excellent metal image of Vishnu
with four arms; the two upper arms carry the sankha and the
chakra and what is peculiar to this sculpture (and a rare feature) is
that the other two arms hold the amrita-kalasam, the pot of nectar.
It can easily be assigned to the period of Rajaraja I as is the
case with the Pallikondar image and the shrine.
The garhhagriha and the ardhamandapa are enclosed in a
surrounding peristyle with a circumambulatory passage, and,
by the style of the pillars and other sculptural characteristics,
both the prakara and the peristyle could be attributed to the age
of Rajaraja I. The pillars of the peristyle are round, and the
corbel is scalloped at the ends, while in the middle is a band
with decorative designs; Ganapati and Subrahmanyar are
housed in two shrines in the south-western and north-western
corners (in the tiruch-churru-maligai ) . In the northern prakara, close
to the ardhamandapa, are images of Valampuri-Ganapati and a
dvarapala to the south of the entrance, and the other dvarapala and
the icons of Subrahmanyar and His Consorts, to the north of
it. Besides these icons, which are all in stone, there is a fine
bronze of Kankalamurti to the west of the garhhagriha in the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
IS?
peristyle of the first prakara. This is a noble specimen of Rajaraja
bronze. In the second prakara, on the north-eastern corner, are
some more bronzes; the most striking of them is a set of Nataraja
and Sivakami, housed in a cella in the peristyle; there is also
a stone sculpture of Mahishasuramardini, of fine workman-
ship; in the north-eastern corner is a cella containing a stone
sculpture of Bhairavar. The second prakara contains a maha-
mandapa leading to the gopuram. On its front wall, close to the
manimandapa, is a fine panel showing Cheraman Perumal and
Sundaramurti. In this prakara, on the southern side, there is
a good set of bronze icons of the sixty-three Nayanmars and a
panel of the Saptarishis in stone, followed further west by a set
of the sixty-three Nayanmars in stone. A treasured possession
of this temple is a fine set of the four Saiva saints in bronze.
GAN G AIKOND AN
KAILASAPATI TEMPLE 39
Gangaikondan is now a small, a very insignificant village
on the trunk road from Madurai to Tirunelveli, 16 kilometres
short of Tirunelveli. There are two temples in this village, one
dedicated to Kailasanathar or Kailasapati (Siva), and the other
a Vishnu temple to the west of the village, dedicated to Venka-
tachalapati. We are here concerned with the Siva temple which is
on the southern bank of the river Chirraru, whose ancient name
was “Chitranadi”. The earliest name of this place is Sri Vallabha-
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeyam in Kilkalar kurram. Even
during the reign of Rajaraja I and the first few years of Rajendra I,
the place continued to retain this name as seen from a twenty-
sixth year inscription of the former and an eighth year inscription
of the latter (ARE 160 and 165 of 1895). After Rajendra I’s
conquest of the Gangetic delta region, this place was renamed
Gangaikondasola-chaturvedimangalam as evidenced by an in-
scription of Ko-Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya (ARE 162
of 1895).
The local legends incorporated in the sthalapuranam say that
1 88 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
in the southern part of the Pandyan country, there were three
temples consecrated by the sage Agastya, viz-, (i) the Nelliyappar
temple in the venu (bamboo) forest (the modem town of Tirunel-
veli), worshipped by Surya and considered to be the right eye
of Siva, iii) the Tiru-kuta-achalesvarar temple in the champaka
forest (the present-day Kuttalam), worshipped by Chandra
and considered to be the left eye of Siva, and (iii) the temple
of Kailasapati in the tintrini (tamarind) forest (Gangaikondan),
worshipped by Agni and considered to be the third eye of Siva.
(The tamarind tree is also called the Kalpaka tree.) After con-
secrating these three temples, Agastya is said to have proceeded
on to Malayachalam and lived with his wife Yogamudra on the
banks of the river Tamraparni whose ancient name was “Tan-
porundam” or “Tan Porunai” (SII, V, 724). According to the
sthalapuranam, the temple at Gangaikondan was at a distance
of a yojana from the venu vanam (Tirunelveli) and three yojanas
from the champaka vanam (Kuttalam). The sthalapuranam goes
on to mention the details of the deities in the temple.
From an inscription of the twenty-sixth year of Rajaraja I
found on the north wall of the temple, we could conclude that
this temple, in some form, was possibly in existence even in the
days of Parantaka I, who bore the title of Madirai-kondan ; there
is mention of the existence of a lake in the neighbourhood of
the temple called Viranarayana-eri, named after another sur-
name of Parantaka I (ARE 160 of 1895; SII, V, 724). However,
the present temple, on the basis of its structural characteristics,
would appear to be the result of extensive renovations and
modifications in the days of Rajaraja I and the viceroyalty of
Rajendra I in Pandi Nadu. This record further mentions that
provision was made for the worship of and offerings to the
deities of Kshetrapalar and Durga in the temple of Sri Kailayam
in Sri Vallabha-mangalam, a brahmadeyam in Kilkalar kurram in
Rajaraja mandalam and mention is also made of the gift by the
sabha of the village, of a flower-garden for the use of the temple.
Among the boundaries of the temple is mentioned a big lake
named Paramesvarap-pereri , perhaps Viranarayana-perieri , the lake
mentioned earlier.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME 1 89
The main temple consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala and
an ardhamandapcr, other structures and prakaras have been added
later. These three are surrounded by a circumambulatory passage
with a tiruch-churru-maligai. In the ardhamandapa, there are two
beautiful, two-armed dvarapalas , one on either side of the entrance
to the antarala, in the true Rajaraja-Rajendra style.
Close to the north wall of the ardhamandapa and inside it,
there are some fine metals of the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
One of them is of Nataraja; from the base to the top of the
aureola, it measures 137 cms (4' 6"). The Sivakami icon by
its side is also of the same height, the pedestal being smaller.
The ardha-chandra, the crescent and the Ganga Bhattari are there
on the crown, while the jata is spread out in strands, three to
to the right, three to the left and three let loose over the nape.
The figure of the Amman is graceful, with the right hand holding
a nilotpala flower. Close to this is a beautiful figure of Soma-
skandar which has been brought from Pannikulam temple (near
Kayattaru not far from here) and kept here for the sake of safety.
In this, the image of Skanda is missing though the pedestal
thereof is there. In the south-western corner of the mandapa
are images of a Tani Amman and Siva as Pradoshamurti. The
former holds a nilotpala flower in one hand while the other is
in the varada pose. The latter is depicted with the abhaya and
the ahuya poses (Pis 156 to 160).
In the tiruch-churru-maligai, there are stone figures of Jvara-
hara-devar, the 63 Tamil saints, a standing Ganapati on a lotus
pitharn (in the south-west comer), Subrahmanyar (in the north-
west corner) and Bhairavar (in the north-east corner). Outside
of this wall, on either side of the entrance, are the large
dvarapalas we have mentioned earlier. In the verandah of the
second prakara there is a cella containing a stone figure of Nata-
raja and His Consort, with Patanjali and Vyaghrapadar wor-
shipping Nataraja, and there is a dimunitive figure of the fasting
Karaikkal Ammaiyar. Inside, on either side of the gateway, are
stone images of Surya and Chandra. There is also one of Adhikara
Nandi.
The temple of Kailasapati has a venerable old tamarind
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
igo
tree for the sthala-vriksha, 5.48 ms (18') in girth at the root level,
representing the kalpaka-vriksha of the local legend.
PASUVANDANAI
40 KAILASANATHAR TEMPLE
Pasuvandanai, a small village in Tirunelveli district, is situ-
ated about 22.5 kms (14 miles) in an easterly direction from
Kayattaru, which in turn is 27.36 kms (17 miles) north
of Tirunelveli town on the Tirunelveli-Madurai highway.
Kayattaru is the place associated with the martyrdom of the
later-day Tamil hero, Kattabomman.
The temple has had a haphazard growth over the centuries
so that no unified plan of construction is discernible; however,
on a close study of the buildings, it is seen that the basic struc-
tures are two independent shrines, both facing east, one dedi-
cated to Siva (Kailasanathar) and the other to Karttikeya.
Both the Siva and the Karttikeya shrines belong to the
same period and bear the imprint of Chola construction. Each
consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala and an ardhamandapa\ in
the case of the Karttikeya shrine, these three constituents together
form a rectangular structure with only a token recess between
the latter two; this recess is decorated with koshta-pancharas .
The side-walls of the garbhagriha and the ardhamandapa have
shallow niches in the centre; they have no icons in them as
elsewhere in the Pandya country. Close to the perimeter wall,
there are shrines for Ganapati, Subrahmanyar and Bhairavar.
The Kailasanathar shrine is an eka-tala structure, with a
brick superstructure; the entablature is adorned with salas and
kutas. There are sculptures over the hara and the griva; the former
are Subrahmanyar on the elephant with His Consorts in the east,
Dakshinamurti in the south, Lakshmi-Narasimha in the west
and Brahma on a hamsa (swan) in the north; the griva-koshta
figures are Dakshinamurti in the south, Yoga-Narasimha in the
west, and Brahma seated on a lotus in the north.
On grounds of style and the general architectural features,
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME I gi
the Kailasanathar and Subrahmanyar temples should be assigned
to the period of Rajaraja I.
SERAMADEVI
RAMASVAMIN TEMPLE 41
(NIGARILISOLA VINNAGARAM)
AMMANATHASVAMIN TEMPLE 42
(CHOLENDRASIMHA-ISVARAM)
DEYVISVARAM UDAIYAR TEMPLE 43
Seramadevi, or Seraman-Mahadevi as it is referred to in
inscriptions, is located in an attractive stretch of the right bank
of the river Tamraparni and is 16 kms from Tirunelveli town.
It has a number of ancient temples dedicated to Vishnu and
Siva and is in fact a city of temples like Kanchipuram. Of them,
as many as eight are of importance. Of these, we are concerned
only with three which belong to the period of Chola hegemony
over Pandi Nadu.
Before going into the details of these temples, a word may be
said about the place itself, as culled from the epigraphical material
available from the walls of these temples. From an inscription
of the twenty-fourth year of Rajaraja I found in the Ramasvamin
temple, we gather that the village of Seramadevi was still called
Seraman Mahadevi chaturvedimangalam and that the Rama-
svamin temple was called Nigarilisola Vinnagar (ARE 180 of
1895) ; in a third year inscription of Rajendra I found in the same
temple, the place is described as Nigarilisola charuppedi-
mangalam, a brahmadeyam in Mulli nadu (ARE 181 of 1895).
Similarly from another inscription (ARE 192 of 1895) found in the
Ambalanathesvarar temple (now called Ammanathasvamin
temple) also in Seramadevi, we get the following passage:
“Sri kovirajarajakesari-panmarana sri Rajaraja devarkku
yandu 28-avadu Mulli nattu brahmadeyam Nigarilisola-
saruppedimangalattu Solendra-singa isvarattu ... ”
192
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
We may thus presume that the name of the village was changed
from Seraman Mahadevi chaturvedimangalam to Nigarilisola
chaturvedimangalam just before the twenty-eighth year of
Rajaraja I. From a twelfth year record of Ko-Sadaiyavarman
alias Udaiyar Sri Sundara Chola-Pandya deva (ARE 193 of 1895),
found in the Ammanathasvamin temple, we get the name of
the deity as “Kailayamudaiyar” (Kailasam Udaiyar) and the
name of the temple as “Cholendra-simhesvaram” of Nigarilisola
chaturvedimangalam in Mulli nadu, in Uttamasola valanadu
in Rajaraja Pandi Nadu. We learn from later Pandyan records
in these temples that the name of the village was changed back
to Seraman Mahadevi chaturvedimangalam, evidently after
the Chola rule over this territory weakened and in course of time
ceased to be.
41 RAMASVAMIN TEMPLE
(NIGARILISOLA VINNAGAR)
Among the eight temples of this place, three are located on
the banks of the river Tamraparni, viz., the Vaidyanathasvamin
temple, which is in the extreme west end of the area, followed
by the Bhaktavatsalar temple which is about 0.80 km (half a
mile) down-stream from the Vaidyanathasvamin temple, and
finally the Ammanathasvamin temple which is at the north-
eastern end of what should have been the old Seraman Mahadevi
chaturvedimangalam.
Ramasvamin temple is about 0.80 km (four furlongs) to
the south of the river and is in the heart of the town; it is an
imposing complex of buildings built over the centuries with
accretions made from time to time by the Cholas, the Pandyas
and later the Vijayanagara and the Nayak rulers.
On the main wall of the central shrine, we have an inscrip-
tion of Rajaraja I dated in the twenty-fourth year; it is in vat-
teluttu and mentions a gift by Divakaran Vasudevan of 75 cows
for three lamps to be burnt in the temple of Nigarilisola Vinnagar
Alvar. Rajaraja I bore the title of Nigarilisola among others and
so we may conclude that this village was renamed Nigarilisola
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 1 93
chaturvedimangalam in the later years of Rajaraja I, and the
temple of Vishnu built in this village was also named after him.
It must have come into existence before his twenty-fourth regnal
year. The Chola viceroy, Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya
provided for offerings (tiruchchennadai) in the shrine of Uyyak-
kondan within the temple of Nigarilisola Vinnagar, as found in
a record of his fourteenth year, 320th day. Similarly, in the
fifteenth year, a gift is made of land for tirumeykkappu in this
temple, to a certain Parantakan Niranjan, a member of the Tisai
Ayirattu Annurruvar Guild. A brahmana lady deposited an amount
of six kasus in the hands of the Vaikhanasas for burning half a
lamp in the temple of Nigarilisola Vinnagar Alvar in Nigarilisola
chaturvedimangalam according to a fourth year record of
Rajendra Chola deva I (ARE 708 of 1916).
The temple consists of a squar e garbhagriha of side 2.44 ms
(8') externally, an antarala and an ardhamandapa-, beyond them is
an enlarged antarala with two openings at the sides; at the entrance
from this second and outer antarala to the ardhamandapa , there
are two dvarapalas. I he mula-vigraha is Adinarayana-svamin
measuring 1.83 ms (6') from toe to kiritam standing on a pitham.
The upper hands hold the sankha and the chakra and the other
two are in the abhaya and the ahuya poses. Abreast of the Lord
are Sridevi and Bhudevi, each with a flower in one hand, the
other arm being in the kati-avalambita pose. Bhrigu and Markan-
deya flank these images and face each other.
In front of the mulasthana images are the utsava-vigrahas of
Adinarayana accompanied by Sridevi and Bhudevi.
In the ardhamandapa, we have a fine set of bronzes, grand
by any standard, comprising Sita, Rama and Lakshmana,
all in one row, and Hanuman (to their left). Local tradition
has it that these fine bronzes were discovered from a well in the
temple campus while it was being excavated. In the north-western
corner of the ardhamandapa, we have a fine set of metal sculp-
tures ol Alarmel-mangai, Sridevi, Venkatachalasvamin, Bhu-
devi, Andal, Rukmini, Rajagopala (or Rajamannar) and Satya-
bhama. Alarmel-mangai is in a seated posture, with lotuses
held in the two upper arms, the two lower ones being in the
194. MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
abhaya and the varada poses. The metals of Venkatachalasvamin
and His Consorts have been brought from the Appar (or Appan)
Venkatachalasvamin temple and kept here for purposes of
security. The Vishnu image (with Sridevi and Bhudevi brought
from the Appar temple) is a gorgeous piece, with channavira,
upavita, udarabandha and kaustubha; the upper arms of the image
bear the sankha and the chakra, the other two being in the varada
and the ahuya poses. Sridevi to His right has disc-shaped ear-
rings and Bhudevi on His left holds the nilotpalam; Andal
does not have her hair tied to one side as usual, but the entire
bun at the rear is merely shifted slightly to her left.
In addition to these bronzes, there are some on the northern
side (middle portion) of the ardhamandapa. There are two sets
of images of Vishnu with His Consorts, brought from the Nadu-
vulappan temple and kept here for safety; one set is old and the
other, of a somewhat later period. Then we have Visvaksena,
dancing Krishna, Manavala Muni (sitting), a standing image
of Tirumangai Alvar and Udaiyavar (Ramanuja).
The entire ardhamandapa has the usual Chola type of pillars
of the Rajaraja I-Rajendra I period (Pis 161 and 162.)
The garbhagriha has three chambers, one above the other;
the ground floor is the mulasthanam; the first floor contains an
image of Vishnu as Virrirunda Perumal; the second floor cella
contains an image of Paflikonda Perumal with Sridevi, Bhudevi,
Bhrigu-rishi and Markandeya. The roofs of these two upper
floors are supported by wooden beams with possibly flat tiles
for the roof. The srivimana is of brick and is in three tiers. The
sikhara is circular. The garbhagriha is 11.58 ms (38') square and is
divided into seven segments each having a koshta-panchara ; the
adhishthanam is 1.63 ms (5' 4") in height; the antarala projects
0.53 m (T 9") forward while the ardhamandapa takes it forward
by another 8.53 ms (28'); the second antarala is 3.96 ms (13')
in length. Adjoining this temple and to its south is a temple
of the later Pandya period, dedicated to the Consort of
Vedanarayana.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME 1 95
AMMAN ATHASVAMIN TEMPLE:
(CHOLENDRA-SIMHA-ISVARAM,
AMBALANATHESVARAR OR KAILAYAMUDAIYAR) 42
The next important temple at Seramadevi is the Mahadevar
temple, now called Ammanathasvamin temple, whose original
name during the days of the Middle Gholas was Cholendra-
simha-Isvaram alias Kailayamudaiya Mahadevar temple at
Nigarilisola chaturvedimangalam. This too bears a large
number of inscriptions belonging to the days of Rajaraja I,
from his twenty-fourth year onwards, and of his successors as
well as their viceroys in charge of the Pandyan province. From
these records, and from the absence of any other records of an
earlier date on the walls of this temple one could conclude that
this temple also came into existence during the days of Rajaraja I
prior to his twenty-fourth year and thus was coeval with the
Vishnu temple of Nigarilisola Vinnagar Alvar (ARE 612 of
19 16 ).
At the turn of the last century, this temple had come to be
called Ambalanathesvarar temple. It lies to the north-east of the
town, on the south bank of the river Tamraparni; it faces east
and the railway line runs in front of the temple.
It has a five-storeyed gopuram at the main entrance. It consists
of the garbhagriha which is 4.57 ms (15') square externally and
and has a height of 3.05 ms (10') from the ground level to the
cornice. The antarala is 1.70 ms (5' 7") 'in length and this is followed
by the ardhamandapa which projects 8.84 ms (29') forward. The
ardhamandapa is also the snapana mandapa. There is the manimandapa
in front. In the tiruch-churru-maligai we have in clock- wise order
images of Adhikara Nandi, Surya, the four Saiva saints, Jvara-
hara-devar, the Saptamatrikas with Virabhadra and Gana-
pati flanking them, and Ganapati in the south-western comer.
Adjoining the Ganapati image is another chamber containing
the metal images of Somaskandar; along the western wall, there
are bronzes of Chandrasekharar with Amman brought from the
Deyvisvaram Udaiyar koyil, and a Tani Amman. In the north-
west corner is Karttikeya. In the centre of the northern wall
ig6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
and close to it is the image of Sani (Saturn) while Chandra,
facing west, is close to the east wall and adjoining the main
entrance. Inside the ardha-cum-snapana mandapa are a number
of fine bronzes including a set of Nataraja and Sivakami Amman
brought and kept here from the Deyvisvarasvamin temple.
The other bronzes in the temple are those of: Adhikara Nandi,
Chandrasekharar, Seraman Perumal, Sambandar, Appar, Sun-
darar, Manikka-vasagar, Agastyar, Chandesvarar and Kan-
kalamurti (PI 163).
To the south of this temple is an Amman shrine, the pre-
siding deity of which now goes under the name of Avudai Nayaki
Amman. This shrine, a foundation of the days of Rajaraja I
or his son, was probably a Siva temple in those days. It was
later converted into an Amman shrine, perhaps during or after
the days of Kulottunga I.
The temple of Ambalanathesvarar as a whole is thus a
foundation of the days of Rajaraja I built before the twenty-
fourth year of the king.
43 DEYVISVARAM UDAIYAR TEMPLE
This temple faces east and consists of a garbhagriha, an ardha-
mandapa and a mahamandapa. The srivimana is in three talas ; in
the shallow niches ( koshtas ) on the walls of the garbhagriha , there
are decorative floral designs; in the insets of these designs,
there are miniature sculptures of Dakshinamurti in the south,
Narasimha in the west and Brahma in the north. The same deities
are found in the koshtas of the first tier, over thej yali frieze, which
in turn is above the cornice and runs the entire round of the
entablature. In the adhishthanam , we have a frieze of elephants
and yalis which bears great similarity to the frieze of the Sapta-
rishisvarar temple at Lalgudy (Tiruchy district).
Subshrines for all the ashta-parivara-devatas must have existed
originally of which, however, only a few remain; the shrines
for Bhairavar in the north-east and for Subrahmanyar in the
north-west are noteworthy; the Bhairavar shrine appears to be
original, and faces south; it consists of a low-roofed cella with
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
197
a porch in front supported by two pillars which are divided into
segments with alternating square and octagonal cross sections,
and the corbel intervening between the roof and the pillar
is scalloped at the sides with a plain band in the middle. These
features are typical of the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
And so this shrine could be assigned to the days of Rajaraja I.
TIRUPPUDAIMARUDIL
PUTARJUNESVARAR (NARUMBUNADAR) TEMPLE 44
Tiruppudaimarudil is about seven kms to the north of the
town of Viravanallur, in Tirunelveli district. It is on the banks
of the river Tamraparni. The temple of Narumbunadar, facing
east, is located on a beautiful bend of this river, and with the
various additions made to it in later times, the entire temple
presents a picturesque scene. The inscriptions on the walls of
this temple refer to the deity as Putarjunesvarar.
The garbhagriha is 6.17 ms (20' 3") square; the adhishthanam
measures 1.45 ms (4' 9") in height from the ground level. Each
free wall of the garbhagriha is divided into three vertical elements,
each decorated with a koshta-panchara , and separated from one
another by low recesses. The width of the central element is
3.12 ms (10' 3"). After the antarala, there is an ardhamandapa,
which houses a number of fine bronzes. In the south-western
corner, facing east, is a bronze of Chandrasekharar and Manon-
mani. On the northern side, along the wall, there are images
of Nataraja and Sivakami Amman, Sri Perumal and Kankala-
murti, the last one a very fine figure.
In the outer verandah, there is a sannidhi, not amounting
to a shrine but constituting a chamber, where there is a fine
set of stone sculptures of Nataraja, Sivakami, Patanjali and
Vyaghrapada with Karaikkal Ammaiyar to the right of the
Nataraja icon.
The wall of enclosure of the second prakara has, close to it
and on either side of the gopuram, icons of Surya and Chandra.
There is a shrine for Bhairavar in the north-eastern corner of
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
198
the prakara. There is a second wall of enclosure on which is
located the outer gopuram. The Amman shrine housing Gomati
Amman is in the second prakara.
What is of importance in this temple is the Chandesvarar
shrine, located close to and north of the main temple, and adja-
cent to the antarala, and the ardhamandapa\ this forms a part of
the original temple-plan and contains some valuable and informa-
tive inscriptions. On the west wall of this shrine, we have a
damaged and incomplete record of Rajaraja I (ARE 124 of 1905).
There is another of the tenth year of the same ruler which men-
tions a gift of land and bears signatures of donees in Grantha
and Vatteluttu (ARE 123 of 1905). This is found on the north
and east walls of this shine. There is a record of the twentieth
year of Sadaiyamaran on the east wall making a reference to a ser-
vant of Vira Pandya, and the village is therein called Tiruppu-
damarudil, in Pandimarttanda valanadu (ARE 122 of 1905).
On grounds of style and epigraphical evidence, this temple
(without the later accretions) could be a foundation of the time
of Rajaraja I.
AMBASAMUDRAM
ERICHGHA UDAIYAR TEMPLE
45 (TIRUMULASTHANAM UDAIYAR)
Ambasamudram is the headquarters of a taluk by the same
name in the Tirunelveli district. It is on the Tamraparni and
on its northern bank is the Erichcha Udaiyar temple. This
temple consists of the central shrine which is called the Tiru-
mulasthanasvamin shrine or the Tiruch-chalaitturai Mahadevar
shrine. Nowadays however the deity of the central shrine is
called Kasipanathar or Kasisvarar, a name the deity acquired in
the recent centuries. The entire temple was called in the olden
times Tiruchchalaitturai koyil.
Among the inscriptions found on the walls of the garbhagriha
of the central shrine, there are at least four which belong to the
period of Rajendra I, and at least five, to the period of the
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
199
viceroyalty of Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya deva. The
earliest of these inscriptions are two, both dated in the eighth
regnal year of Rajendra I (ARE 71 and 73 of 1907). We may,
therefore, presume that this temple in its present form came
into existence in the early years of Rajendra I, or perhaps even
in the later days of Rajaraja I (ARE 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 78
and 80? of 1907).
The main shrine consists of a garbhagriha, a snapana-mandapa
and an ardhamandapa and is surrounded by a courtyard circum-
scribed by a tiruch-churru-maligai.
There are a number of smaller shrines in the temple campus.
Two of them, both of about the same age, are located in the
northern verandah, one dedicated to Siva and the other to Vishnu.
These two shrines are perhaps the oldest shrines in the temple
complex and date back at least to the days of the Pandyan king
Varaguna Maharaja. The deity of the Siva shrine is now called
Erichcha Udaiyar, though in the inscriptions it was known
as Tiruppottudaiyar or Tiruppottudaiya Bhatarar at Ilangoyk-
kudi, a brahmadeya in Mulli nadu. The application of the
name of Erichcha Udaiyar to the entire temple as well as to the
deity of the small shrine in the north prakara has been the cause of
much confusion. The earliest inscription to be found on the
walls of the Siva shrine is one in Vatteluttu which mentions
‘Vira Pandya who took the Chola head’ and refers to a gift of
land (ARE 101 of 1907). On the south wall of the shrine, there
is a Tamil record of the eighteenth year of Jatavarman Udaiyar
Sundara Chola-Pandya deva relating to a gift of 60 sheep for
a lamp and another of the eighteenth year of Rajaraja I
refers to a gift of 25 sheep for a lamp to the deity who is
called Tiruppottudaiya devar (ARE 99 and 98 of 1907). Thus the
deity of tills small shrine now called Erichcha Udaiyar was
known in the past as Tiruppottudaiyar. This shrine is the oldest
part of the temple and dates back at least to the days of the
Pandyan king Varaguna Maharaja (a.d. 765-815). This is
attested by an inscription found embedded in the floor of the
north prakara of the temple (ARE 105 of 1907) relating to his
sixteenth regnal year ; Varaguna in the course of his wars with the
200
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Pallavas went as far north as Araisur on the banks of the Pennai
river (in Tondai mandalam) from where (Araisur) he granted
290 kasus to the temple of Tiruppottudaiyar at Ilangoykkudi
in Mulli nadu. The shrine evidently underwent renovation
sometime during the reign of Rajaraja I.
Facing this shrine is the small cella of the Vishnu shrine,
whose deity is called in the inscriptions Tiruchchalaitturai
Ninralulina Emberuman of Ilangoykkudi, a brahmadeya in Mulli
nadu.
BRAHMADESAM
46 KAILASANATHAR TEMPLE
Brahmadesam is about 22 kms from Seramadevi and has
an ancient temple dedicated to Kailasanathar, one of the biggest
temples in the district of Tirunelveli.
Brahmadesam, along with Tiruvalisvaram and Mannar-
koyil which are both less than two kms from here, was part
of an important military centre where Rajaraja I and his successors
had stationed a strong army as they had done at Kottaru near
Nagerkoyil. During their time, the three places came under a
common jurisdiction known as Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam
which was a brahmadeyam. As will be seen in the section on
Tiruvalisvaram, the Munrukai mahasenai was an important con-
tingent of the Chola army stationed at this cantonment.
The Kailasanathar temple perhaps came into existence
during the days of Chola occupation of the Pandi Nadu. How-
ever beyond a stray vatteluttu inscription of the period of Rajaraja I
found embedded in the steps of the river in the village, we
have little evidence of the shape of the temple during his time.
The present day temple appears to belong to the late fifteenth
century, the additions and renovations having gone on over the
earlier centuries (ARE 373 to 381 of 1916). It is a vast complex
consisting of the Kailasanathar shrine in the main axis ; to the
north of it are the shrines of Sundaresvarar and Minakshi and
further north of it is the Brigannayaki shrine; linking these
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 20 1
three shrines is a common, multi-pillared, open hall called the
Somavara mandapa] in the north-east corner of the campus is
another, big, independent, multi-pillared hall called the Arudhra
mandapa. All these shrines and halls are encompassed by a tiruch-
churru-maligai. The main elu-nilai gopuram built during the days of
Virappa Nayaka, son of Visvanatha Nayaka Krishnappa Nayaka
of the Madurai Nayaka dynasty, dates back to the turn of the
sixteenth century (ARE 377 of 1916) and stands in front of the
Kailasanatha shrine (Pis 164 to 1 7 1 ) .
There are a number of fine bronzes in this temple, some of
which date back to the days of Chola hegemony over this region.
TIRUVALISVARAM
TIRUVALISVARAR (TIRU-IRAMISVARAM) TEMPLE 47
The temple of Tiruvalisvaram, not far from the taluk head-
quarters of Ambasamudram in Tirunelveli district, is set in the
midst of green paddy fields, away from all habitation, on the banks
of the river Ghatana, at the point where the river changes from
a south-easterly to an easterly course. This river is said to take
its name after the pot ( ghatam in Sanskrit) of Agastyar who is
said to reside in the hills to the west of the temple. The temple
is at a distance of about three kms from Mannarkoyil and about
two kms from Brahmadesam and is reached only by a tortuous
country txack.
A structure entirely in stone from the adhishthanam to the
stupi, and in a fine state of preservation, this temple is a beauti-
ful specimen of Chola art of the middle period in the Pandyan
region. There are a number of Chola, Chola-Pandya and Pandya
inscriptions on the walls of the temple. On the north wall of the
central shrine is a record of Rajaraja I dated in his eleventh
year relating to a gift of land (ARE 116 of 1905). On the same
wall, there is a Vatteluttu inscription dated in the eighteenth year
of a king whose name is not mentioned, from which we learn
of an agreement among the villagers of Rajaraja-chaturvedi-
mangalam (ARE 1 1 7 of 1 90 1 ) . In another eleventh year inscription
202
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
of Rajarajakesarivarman of Kandalur salai fame, i.e. Raja-
raja I, the village is referred to as Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam,
a brahmadeyam in Mulli nadu, a sub-division of Rajaraja valanadu
(ARE 1 1 9 of 1901). On a pillar near the bali-pitham, there is
another inscription registering the victories gained by a corps
of the Chola armv called Munru-kai-mahasenai, which further
mentions that the temple of Tiruvalisvaram, its treasury and
the temple servants were placed under the protection of this
unit of the army stationed in the neighbouring military station
of the Cholas.
The temple faces east. It consists of a garbhagriha , an antarala
and an ardhamandapa. Externally, the garbhagriha measures 4. 72 ms
(15' 6") square, the antarala projects 2.72 ms (8' 11") forward and
the ardhamandapa takes the building further forward by another
7.75 ms (29' 5"), the width of this portion being 7.34 ms (24').
The adhishthanam measures 0.98 m (3' 2I") in height. It consists
of the jagati, the octagonal kumudam, followed by a lively frieze,
running the full round of the garbhagriha, showing animated
figures of lions, yalis and elephants. A van tops the adhishthanam
mouldings. The outer walls of the garbhagriha are plain without
devakoshtas as is common in temples of the Pandya country. The
prastara has a bhutagana frieze, a cornice and a yali frieze above
it. The temple is dvi-tala with a hara over the garbhagriha. The
hara comprises a central sala flanked by a kuta on each side, with a
nidha in between the sala and the kuta. The griva rests on an
octagonal slab whose side measures 1. 14 ms (3' 8"). At each of the
corners of this platform, is a recumbent nandi. From the base
of the griva to the top of the simhamukha over the grivakoshta, the
height is 2.35 ms (7' 8").
The ardhamandapa is supported by eight pillars and eight
pilasters. Outside the entrance to the ardhamandapa and on either
side of it, there are two fine dvarapala images with two arms,
typical of the period of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. The tiruch-churru-
maligai is intact in the south and west, the northern portion
having collapsed. In the peristyle, there are stone sculptures of
Jvaraharesvarar, the Saptamatrikas, a standing Ganapati in the
south-western corner in a separate structure, and Karttikeya
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
203
similarly housed in the north-western corner. The Ganapati
sculpture is a grand one, measuring 1.32 ms (4' 4") in height;
Karttikeya, with six pairs of hands, is in a standing posture and
the mount, the peacock, is to the rear.
The most noteworthy feature of this temple, apart from the
subdued beauty of its proportions, is the set of exquisite sculp-
tures adorning the outer surfaces of the kutas, salas and the nidhas on
all the three sides of the srivimana. Some of these sculptures are
somewhat rare, and the others, though depicting oft-repeated
themes are so delightfully carved that they deserve close descrip-
tion. There are no sculptures on the eastern wing of the hara.
We have five sculptures on each of the three sides, one in each
corner on the kuta, one on the sala in the middle and two in the
nidhas between the central sala and the kutas on the sides. Tak-
ing the sculptures from the south-eastern corner and going round
the hara in a clockwise order, they are :
(i) South-kuta-eastern
This is a sculpture of Gangadharar, Siva in the act of receiving
the Ganga in his matted locks and simultaneously appeasing
Parvati, who is annoyed at Siva’s diverted attention; also called
Uma-prasadana, for this reason.
(ii) South-nidha
This is a sculpture of Vrishabhantikar, depicting Siva and
Uma standing in a posture of embrace ( alingina ) while leaning
against the Vrishabha.
(Hi) South-s ala
This is the niche which is usually earmarked for Dakshina-
murti; there is a fine figure of Nataraja in the ananda tandava
pose with one foot planted on the prostrate Apasmara.
( iv ) South-nidha
This is a rare sculptural representation of Siva. He stands
in a posture of offering blessings; Parvati, as Sati, is standing
in the background and below her is Daksha with a ram’s head
204 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(being fitted on to him by a gana). This is a sculpture of Daksha.
(v) South-kuta-western
This depicts Siva as Ardhanarisvarar, standing against a
bull, with the Siva-half two-armed and the Parvati-half single-
armed.
(vi) West-kuta-southern
This would appear to be a representation of Tripurantakar,
as the central figure (Siva) is armed with bow and arrow in
one pair of arms, the mriga and the parasu being held in the
other pair. The figure has also been interpreted, with less justi-
fication, as Kirata.
(vii) West-nidha
This is a sculpture of Kalantakar or Kalari, i.e., Siva (with
eight arms) trampling on Kala (Yama).
(mil) West-sala
Lingodbhavar with Brahma as hamsa on the top and Vishnu
as Varaha at the base of the linga ; flanking the image are again
Brahma on the left and Vishnu with hands in the anjali pose
on the right of the niche housing the Lingodbhavar image.
(ix) West-nidha
Siva is shown here as Kamantaka. Siva is seated in the
sukhasana pose, with a yoga-patta holding the left uplifted knee
on to the body. In the recess to the right of Siva is the figure
of Kama encircled by flames caused by the anger of Siva
disturbed in His meditation. To the left is shown Rati, the wife
of Manmatha, in a pose of supplication seeking forgiveness
from Siva for the misdemeanour of her husband. (*)
(*) West-knta-northern
This is a beautiful figure of Kankalamurti, with two hands
engaged in beating the drum with a piece of bone, while the
upper left hand holds the trident flung over the nape. A gana
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 2O5
is carrying the begging bowl on his head and stands beside the
main figure while the rishi-patni to his right offers him alms.
(xi) North-kuta-western
There is a standing female figure with the head tilted upwards
in a posture of looking up to heaven in prayer and the two arms
held in the anjali pose. She is standing on one leg and the other
is lifted up and bent in the posture of urdhavajanu. There would
appear to be the five fires ( panchagni ) surrounding her; she may
be identified as Parvati engaged in her austere penace before
her marriage to Siva.
(xii) North-nidha
As if in continuation and culmination of the penance scene
above, this panel depicts Parvati being led and offered by her
father Himavan in marriage to Siva who is shown seated in
the sukhasana pose. The affectionate holding by the father of the
shoulders of Parvati, the down-turned face of Parvati indicative
of coyness, along with the anjali pose denoting her acceptance
of the protection of Siva, present an altogether well-articulated
scene of Parvati’s marriage and the theme of Kalyanasundarar.
(xiii) North-sala
This depicts Siva as Gajasamharamurti; the verve of action
and the ease with which the annihilation is effected are brought
out in this representation of the oft-repeated theme; the head
of the elephant is shown to the left of the base with Siva’s left
foot stamping on it, the skin of the animal being shown as the
canvas for the entire panel, held aloft between a pair of Siva’s
eight arms. The vigour of the action is shown by the wide spread
of the matted locks and the stance and the flexion of the body.
The other arms carry the usual weapons and assume the usual
poses.
(xiv) North-nidha
This represents one of the finest themes in South Indian
art; and under the section on Gangaikondacholisvaram we
206
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
shall deal with an exquisite sculpture on this theme found in
that temple. Siva and Uma are here shown as seated on the
recumbent Nandi, and Siva is shown in the process of tying the
nirmalya (garland) round the head of the supplicant Chandesa,
who is seen accepting the blessings and grace ( anugraha ) of the
Lord. This figure is known as Chandesa-anugraha-murti.
(xv) Morth-kuta-eastern
This icon is not easily identifiable; however one can see
the figure of Siva seated in the sukhasana posture and a devotee
performing abhisheka.
In addition to this array of sculptures in the hara, there are
four equally exquisite figures in the grivakoshtas. They are :
(i) Indra seated on the divine elephant (Airavata) in the
eastern niche;
(ii) Dakshinamurti in the southern niche — the usual place ;
(iii) Yoga-Narasimha (Narasimha in his yoga posture, with
the yoga-patta tied round his upturned knees and the
waist) in the western niche; and
(iv) Brahma, seated on a lotus, in the northern niche.
Outside the temple and close to the gopuram, in the north-
eastern direction, is a shrine of Bhairavar, one of the ashta-parivara-
devatas. On grounds of structural characteristics, it would appear
to be of the same period as the main temple.
The name Tiruvalisvaram is found mentioned, among others,
in an inscription in this temple of a Chola-Pandya viceroy,
Sundara Chola-Pandya deva of the post-Rajaraja I period
(vide ARE 327 of 1916), which refers to a gift of five velis of
land to the temple of Tiruvalisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar in Rajaraja-
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeyam in Mulli nadu in Mudi-
gondasola valanadu, a district of Rajaraja Pandi Nadu, for
conducting festivals, feeding brahmanas, and reading the Siva-
dharma ; the inscription mentions that the gift was made by the
king from his palace at Rajendrasolapuram, at the request of
the king’s maternal uncle ( ammanar ). Presumably the deity of
this temple was known by the name of Tiruviramesvarar in the
earlier days and later on came to be known by the name of
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I*S TIME
207
Tiruvalisvarar, though unconnected with Vali in any manner.
The inscriptions reveal that the name of Tiruvalisvaram applies
both to the place and to the temple.
To the south of this temple is the Amman temple of Soundara-
nayaki. This must have been a Siva temple coeval with the
main temple and later on converted into an Amman shrine,
as has happened in the case of a number of temples built in the
days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. On the west and north sides
of the base of this temple, there are later Pandyan records.
Surrounding the main Siva temple and the Amman temple is
a second wall of enclosure which is of a later date.
This temple is one of the finest structural stone temples
built in the Pandya country. Its date is not easy to decide. It
is clear that it should have been built by the Cholas during their
imperial sway. There is no foundation inscription. The earliest
inscriptions in this temple are two of the eleventh regnal year of
Rajaraja I (a.d. 996). They are in vatteluttu characters. Herein,
we find the village renamed Rajaraja chaturvedimangalam;
but there is no indication that Rajaraja I was the builder of
this temple.
N.R. Banerjee of the Archaeological Survey of India has
contributed a learned article to the Journal of the Asiatic Society
(Vol. IV, 3 and 4 of 1962). In this he writes: “Stylistically,
circumstantially, and on the basis of the indirect evidence of
inscriptions, it is ascribed to the period of Parantaka, sometime
before the accession of Rajaraja I” (p. 169), and again after
examining epigraphical evidence, he adds: “It is most likely
that the temple would have come into existence in the time of
Parantaka, if not a little earlier.” He concedes that it is of early
Chola style built early in the tenth century (pp. 169 and 177).
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri writes: “The Siva temple at Tiruvalis-
varam (Tirunelveli district) is a valuable museum of superb
early Chola iconography of the time before Rajaraja I.” ( The
Colas, second edition, p. 728).
There is no possibility of this temple having come into exist-
ence earlier than the period of Parantaka I. He had conquered
the whole of the Pandya country after defeating Rajasimha, the
208
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
last Pandya ruler of the First Pandyan Empire. His consolidation
of the Pandya country is brought out by three inscriptions
between a.d. 940 and 947.* It has to be added that Sundara
Chola had to put down the revolt of Vira Pandya at the battle
of Sevuru in about a.d. 963 (vide pp. 105 and 133 of my Early
Chola Temples). But still a sort of political confusion bordering
on anarchy would have prevailed in the Pandya country till
the final consolidation of Chola rule under Rajaraja I and his
son Rajendra I.
So, a definite date for the construction of the Tiruvalisvaram
temple is hard to fix. Without a full survey of all the Pandyan
monuments no safe deduction as to style is possible. It is in-
credible but a fact that a complete survey of Pandyan temples
has not been done even after a century of work by the Archaeol-
ogical Survey.
Parantaka I must have been in possession of this strategic
area on the well-established military route to Kottaru on the
west coast.* In India, Art follows the flag. This temple might
have been started during the last phase of Parantaka I’s rule in
the middle of the tenth century (about a.d. 947) and completed
just after Rajaraja I’s conquest of the Pandya country (between
a.d. 988 and 996). His eleventh year inscription might indicate
this stage.
An observation may be ventured. Some features of this temple
resemble those of the Muvarkoyil at Kodumbalur, to be assigned
to the days of Sundara Chola who also claims to be a conqueror of
Madurai and an invader of Sri Lanka. The arrangement of the
*Thirty-third year at Anaimalai (ARE 63 of 1905; SII,III,io6), thirty-sixth year at Kuttalam
(ARE 448 of 19x7) and fortieth year at Suchindram (ARE 82 of 1896).
**Parakesari inscriptions which could be attributed to Parantaka I are found in southern
Pandya country at Kuttalam, Kanya Kumari and Suchindram:
2 ISt
year
Kuttalam
ARE 439 of 1917
22nd
99
>, 44i
24th
99
»» 442
25th
>»
99
» 443
27th
93
99
„ 438
31st
99
Kanya Kumari
T.A.S., I., p 237
34th
»
Suchindram
ARE 81 of 1896
35*
99
99
ARE 447 of 1917.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME 209
salas and the karnakutas and the installation of vimana-devatas
are similar, though the shape of the sikharas is different.
Another feature that strikes us, on a careful study of this
temple, is that the superb vimana-devatas in their numbers and
variety are not fitted correctly and elegantly into the niches.
The heads of the central figures in the koshtas of the second tala
are not on the same axis as the apex of the simha-lalatas over the
koshtas (see figures of Kalari and Gajasamhara). It seems to be
a case of later insertion (Pis 172 to 176).
With such an uncertain background and lack of clear epi-
graphical evidence, it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion
on the date of this temple. It seems to me to be safe to ascribe
this temple to the latter half of the tenth century and deem it a
monument started in the days of Parantaka I near his military
station of Brahmadesam and completed by Rajaraja I during
his early days after the conquest of Pandi Nadu and maintained
for the benefit of his own men stationed there and of the local
population.
The deep interest, nay even concern, Rajaraja I had evinced
in this temple and its affairs is reflected in an undated inscription
of this period which mentions that the temple of Tiruvalis-
varam, all its belongings, its priests and servants were placed in
chai'ge of the Munru-kai-mahasenai (a regiment of the imperial
army) .
NAGERKOYIL
CHOLISVARAM TEMPLE 48
The southernmost tip of the peninsula received as much
attention from the suzerain as the heartland of the Cholas, the
Chola mandalam, and their mandate was enforced through
military stations set up at Kottaru among other places; it is
now a suburb of Nagerkoyil in Kanyakumari district. In this
region there are numerous temples built during the Chola
period.
210
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(/) BHUVANA N AND IS VARA R TEMPLE:
One among them is a half-ruined temple close to Kanya
Kumari town on the road leading to it from Nagerkoyil. The
temple, presently called Bhuvana nandisvaram was known in
ancient days as Rajarajesvaram, after Rajaraja I. This should
have come into existence even during his life time or within
three years of his death, as the earliest inscription found on the
walls of this temple dates back to the fifth regnal year of Rajendra I
(ARE 103 of 1896). There are a number of subsequent records
of Rajendra I mostly relating to gifts of lamps and provision for
services, and belonging to his 24th, 25th, 29th and 31st years.
There are also records of Rajadhiraja I; one of his, of the 31st
year, refers to the conquest of the Kupaka kingdom, which
extended over the present day district of Kanya Kumari in
Tamil Nadu and the southern parts of Kerala state (ARE 96
of 1896). There are inscriptions of the later Chola ruler Vikrama
Ghola too in this temple.
(II) KANYA KUMARI TEMPLE:
Dominating the southernmost point of the Indian peninsula
and scanning the three seas is a temple dedicated to the Goddess
Kanya Kumari, one of the few ancient and venerated Amman
temples in Tamil Nadu that existed even before the period of the
Later Cholas when separate independent Amman shrines and
temples as adjuncts to the central shrine came to be built. An
inscription of Parantaka I’s dated in his 9th year confirms that
the Chola king was well in control of the Pandyan region; it
specifies the boundaries of the temple land (ARE 108 of 1896).
From an inscription attributable to Rajendra (perhaps II), we
learn that this centre also bore the name of Gangaikondasola-
puram, derived from a surname of Rajendra I.
(III) STHANUNATHA TEMPLE, SUCHINDRAM :
Suchindram lies between Kottaru (Nagerkoyil) and Kanya
Kumari, and the temple of Sthanunathar along with the Kailasa-
nathar shrine in it is an old and famous temple there. Numerous
inscriptions of the Early and Middle Chola rulers and the Chola
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
21 1
Pandya viceroys are found there. The two records of “Kop-
Parakesarivarman who took Madurai and Ilam”, Parantaka I,
are dated in his thirty-fourth and fortieth years and relate to
gifts for lamps.*
(IV) CHOLISVARAM TEMPLE, NAGERKO TIL:
The notable contribution of the Cholas in this region is,
however, the Cholisvaram temple, whose original name when
it was set up in the Chola military station of Kottaru was Cholis-
varam Udaiya Nayanar temple; Kottaru has now been swallowed
up by the new city of Nagerkoyil and has assumed the modest
status of a suburb under the name of Oliginach-cheri, having
gone under the name of Cholarajapuram a century back.**
This temple must have been set up in the years just before
the i ith regnal year of the viceroy of Rajaraja I, viz., Rajendra I
himself, who as viceroy bore the title of Ko-jatavarman Sundara
Chola Pandya deva; for we find that a number of gifts of lamps
were made to this temple in his nth year, one of which is made
by a certain Sarvalokasraya Sri Vishnu vardhana Maharaja
alias Salukki Vijayadittan Vikkiyannan (ARE 30 to 46 of 1896).
All these inscriptions are found on the prakara walls. During the
days of Kulottunga I, the original Middle Chola temple was
reconsecrated as seen from an inscription recording a grant
to the temple made by Kulottunga I in the thirtieth year and
180th day from his palace at Kanchipuram. One of the local
officers of this Chola king, Mulliyur Udaiyan Araiyan Madhu-
rantakan alias Kulottungasola-Kerala-rajan of Manni nadu in
Chola mandalam (re-) built the temple under the name of
Rajendra-solisvaram which was perhaps its original name, and
to this temple, Kulottunga I granted the village of Andayakkudi
renamed Rajendrasola-nallur, as a devadana iraiyili (ARE 31 of
♦Other inscriptions are ARE 67, 75, 71 and 85 of 1896, all relating to Rajaraja I in vatteluttu
and ARE 69 and 76 of 1896 of the viceroys.
♦♦Some 70 years back, when the Government Epigraphist visited this temple, he described
it as being located in the suburb of Nagerkoyil known then as Cholarajapuram, which name has
changed today and is remembered only by the older men in the area; he also mentioned it as
being located close to the Post-office building, which is now gone; we had trouble tracing the
temple during our field study.
212
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
1896 — See Laddigam by B. Venkataraman, pp. 34, 35). Even
this inscription is on the prakara wall. In the fourteenth century,
the temple underwent major remodelling, according to a record
dated in Saka 1293 (a.d. 1371), at the hands of a later Pandyan
ruler Parakrama Pandya (ARE 30 of 1896).
The temple faces east and consists of the garbhagriha, the
antarala and the ardhamandapa ; the square garbhagriha measures
17 5§ i n - (5- 2 3 m ) side; the antarala projects 4 ft. (1.22 ms)
forward; the ardhamandapa measures 27ft. 6 in. (8.38 ms) square
externally. There are four pilasters in each side wall of the
garbhagriha and the token niches in the middle are too shallow
to accommodate any icons, in true Chola-Pandya tradition. In
the sala niches in the three directions are Brahma in the north,
Narasimha in the west and Dakshinamurti in the south; the
icons are repeated in the griva niches above. There is an open
courtyard ( prakara ) round the temple with a wall of enclosure
( madil ) ; the entire edifice is on a raised ground and is reached by
a high flight of steps from the eastern side.
There is a very- well-turned-out bronze image of Somaskandar
kept in the ardhamandapa, belonging to the Later Chola period.
A later Pandya addition, the Amman shrine, lies to the south
of the Siva temple, and the Consort goes under the name of
Pumkulali.
(V) DARISANAMKOPPU TEMPLE:
About 10 miles (16 kms) north of Nagerkoyil is an apsidal,
ekatala temple, built during the days of Rajaraja I. It bears an
inscription of this ruler.
(VI) GUHANATHASVAMW TEMPLE
At Kanyakumari, there is another Chola temple, built in
the days of Rajaraja I. The original temple, dedicated to
Guhanathasvamin consisted of the garbhagriha and the ardha-
mandapa. The front hall is a later addition.
The temple preserves the original devakoshta sculptures of
Ganesa and Dakshinamurti in the south, Yoga-Narasimha in the
west, and Brahma in the north. There might have been a figure
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
213
of Durga on the north side of the ardhamandapa (see The Arts
and Crafts of Kerala , Paico Publishing House, Madras, pp. 47-
73; Illustrations II).
MATTOTTAM
( Alias Rajarajapuram)
RAJARAJA-ISVARAM 49
As a part of his plan of extending the limits of his already
vastly grown empire, Rajaraja I invaded Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
and brought the entire island under his suzerainty and made it
a province of the Chola empire, giving it the new appellation of
Mummudi Chola valanadu or mandalam after one of his own
surnames. Anuradhapura, the capital of Ilam (Sri Lanka), a
city with a flourishing past of more than a thousand years, was
sacked, and a new capital was established at Polonnaruva, a
more centrally situated place and an ancient military station of
the Sinhalese, otherwise called Kanavaru Nuvara (a camp city).
There is an inscribed (mutilated) slab preserved at the museum
at Colombo which contains a reference to a temple whose deity
is named Rajaraja-Isvarattu-Mahadevar at Mandottam alias
Rajarajapuram in Mummadisola mandalam. This temple was
evidently named after Rajaraja I and the place was also similarly
named (ARE 616 of 1912; SII, IV, 1412). This inscription relates
to a gift of land to this temple by one Tali Kumaran, a headman
of Sirukurranallur in Velar nadu, a sub-division of Kshatri-
yasikhamani valanadu, which was a province of Chola mandalam.
This gift was given as an iraiyili devadanam for the midnight
service and for celebrating the festival of Vaikasi Visakham.
Mandottam (or Mattottam) has been identified with Mantota,
opposite the southern end of the island of Mannar, where there
are some ancient remains including those of a celebrated temple
dedicated to Tirukedisvarar, a temple in Ila-nadu (Sri Lanka)
sung by the Tamil saint Sambandar (seventh century a.d.).
On one face of a pillar preserved in the Colombo Museum,
there is a mutilated inscription containing a fragment of the
214
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
historical introduction of Rajendra Chola I (ARE 6 1 8 ol 1912;
SII, IV, 1414); on another face of the same pillar, there is a
mutilated inscription which mentions a gift of four kasus for a
twilight lamp ( sandhi-vilakku) by a royal officer of Udaiyar
Rajendra Chola deva I ( perundanattu pani-magan ) by name
Sirukattur Udaiyar . . devam chandi . . . . , to the temple here
called that of Tiruviramisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar at Mandot-
tam alias Rajarajapuram. There is a reference here to Rishabha-
vahana devar, possibly an icon set up in the temple. Could this
temple be the same as the Rajaraja Isvaram Udaiya Mahadevar
shrine ?
Though, unfortunately, we have no trace of this temple, the
two inscriptions definitely establish the existence of at least one
Chola temple at Mandottam during the reign of Rajaraja I.
POLONNARUVA
50 SIVA DEVALE (DEVALAYA) NO. 2
(I) VANAVAN MADEVI ISVARAM
(II) PALLIKONDAR SHRINE
Polonnaruva, which lies between the 26th and 27th mile posts
on the Habarana (Giritale) Batticaloa road, bore various names
in the past such as Pulastipura, Pulainari and Vijayarajapura,
and was renamed Jananathapura or Jananatha-mangalam in
Nigarilisola mandalam after Rajaraja I’s conquest. In this new
capital, many Buddhist and Jain temples already existed side by
side. A number of Siva temples were added during the Chola
rule (Bell’s Report on Epigraphy, 1909-10, p.9). Very few of
these, however, have survived. The most important among such
survivors is a Siva temple designated “Siva Devale 2”.
Vanavan Madevi Isvaram: There are three Chola inscriptions
found in this temple. The earliest of them is a fragmentary record
of Rajendra I found on the south wall of the temple (ARE 595
of 1912; SII, IV, 1389 — this record is referred to in the Sri Lanka
Literature as Inscription E). The remaining two records relate
to the period of the short-lived Chola ruler Adhirajendra. One
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
215
of them (ARE 596 of 1912; SI I, IV, 1392 — referred to as Ins-
criptions A, B and C in Sri Lanka Literature) refers to a gift of a
perpetual lamp and a tar a lamp-stand to the temple of Vanavan
Madevi Isvaram Udaiyar, the Lord of Jananathamangalam
(the new name of Polonnaruva), the gift being placed under the
protection of the Mahesvaras and other members of a local com-
mittee. The date of this inscription is missing but it would
appear to relate to his third year; it begins with his historical
introduction tingaler malarndu. The other inscription of Ko-
Parakesarivarman Udaiyar Sri Adhirajendra devar is dated in
his third year (ARE 594 of 1912; SII, IV, 1388). His accession
was in A.D. 1067-68 and his highest regnal year was third; so
this inscription could be ascribed to the early part of a.d.
1070. This mentions a gift of money (five kasus ) for a perpetual
lamp in the temple of Vanavan Madevi Isvaram udaiyar at
Jananathamangalam: The name of a petty chief Cholap-palla-
varaiyan of Sonadu is mentioned in this record.
Vanavan Mahadevi alias Tribhuvana Mahadevi was a
queen of Rajaraja I’s and the mother of Rajendra I. It,
therefore, appears reasonable to infer that the Siva temple,
known by the name of Vanavan Madevi Isvaram, was built
during the reign of Rajaraja I, possibly by his son Rajendra I,
who was the father’s viceroy in the southern provinces of the
empire.
There is an inscription of the third regnal year of Rajaraja I
at Tiruvenkadu (Tanjavur district) which mentions a gift of
a lamp to this temple by Udaiya Pirattiyar Tambiranadigal
Vanavan Madeviyar alias Tribhuvana Mahadeviyar, the queen
(. narnpirattiyar ) of Rajaraja I and the mother ( achchiyar ) of
Rajendrasola devar (SII, V, 982: ARE, 1 1 7 of 1896). This con-
firms the association of this queen of Rajaraja I with the temple
at Polonnaruva.
Pallikondar shrine : On the south wall of this temple is another
inscription (ARE 595-A of 1912; SII, IV, 1390; inscription D
in Sri Lanka records), which refers to a shrine of Pallikondar
within the temple of Vanavan Madevi Isvaram udaiyar ( Vanavan
Madevi Koyir-pallikondar) . Another brief inscription also found
_>[6 MIDDLE CIIOLA TEMPLES
on the south wall (ARE 595-B of 1912; SII, IV, 1391) mentions
the consecration of the image of Alagiya Manavalar (Krishna)
{alagiya manavalarai elundarulivittu). There are no Vishnu shrines
either intact or in ruins within the premises of this temple (Siva
Devale 2) ; but there do exist the ruins of a Vishnu temple of
stone, about a third of a mile (0.54 km) to the west of this temple
and within the city wall at its northern gate. Perhaps the two
Vaishnavite images referred to above were housed in this Vishnu
temple.
We have examples of a Pallikondar shrine in a Siva temple
at other places too, as for instance in the Somanathesvarar temple
at Attur-Sendamangalam and in the Nelliyappar temple at
Tirunelveli, both in Pandi Nadu.
Siva Devale no. 2 is situated in a vast compound measuring
29.26 ms (96') by 25.60 ms (84'). A wall of enclosure for the
temple was built at a later date. The temple is a dvitala structure
facing east, and consists of a garbhagriha and an ardhamandapa ;
only the basement of the latter survives. It is built of granite and
sandstone. The adhishthanam has an octagonal kumudam. The
central shrine has three projecting niches, one each in the centre
of the three free sides. There is a cornice adorned with kudus
in the first tala. The second tala contains the bhadra-sala in the
centre and two karna-kutas at the corners; above it, we have the
griva and an octagonal, curvilinear sikhara. There is no stupi
at present. There is a nandi in front. The garbhagriha is 9.14 ms
(30') square and the srivimana is 9.75 ms (31' 9") high measured
from the courtyard floor (PI 177 ).
The only surviving memorial of the rule over Sri Lanka
of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, this fine temple in Sri Lanka,
simple but grand in design, still majestic in its bearing and built
on the best traditions of the sthapatis of the mother country, is
a symbol of the artistic and cultural influence exercised by the
Imperial Cholas in the conquered provinces.
Siva Devale JVo. 5: Adjoining Siva Devale No. 2 are some
inscribed pillars containing the names of individuals who were
evidently the donors of the respective pillars for a temple that
is now no longer there. The donors were apparently prominent
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 21 7
men from the mainland, their names being associated with
sacred centres like Chidambaram and Tiruvaiyaru.
We know nothing more of this temple.
KALPE KORALE
UTTAMA CHOLA ISVARAM UDAIYA MAHADEVAR
TEMPLE
Of this temple at Kalpe Korale in Sri Lanka, we know very
little beyond the name. On a pillar slab at Etakade in Kalpe
Korale, there is an inscription of the twenty-eighth year (possibly
of Rajaraja I) which registers a gift of three velisoi land for a lamp
to the temple of Uttama-Chola-Isvaram Udaiya Mahadevar,
by a certain Arangan Iramesan (ARE 615 of 1912). In all likeli-
hood this temple was built during the days of Rajendra I’s viceroy-
alty in Sri Lanka.
MALURPATNA
ARKESVARAR (ARUMOLIDEVISVARAM UDAIYA
MAHADEVAR) TEMPLE 51
N AR A Y AN AS V A MY (JAYANGONDASOLA VINNAGAR
ALVAR) TEMPLE 52
On the road from Bangalore to Mysore, there is a country
track that takes off from the highway at a point 2\ kms south-
west of Chennapatna, the present taluk headquarters, to reach
Malur-Patna which is at a distance of 8 kms along this track in
a southerly direction. In the olden days, Dodda-Malur, where
the temples of Kailasesvarar and Apprameyasvamin are located,
as well as Malur-Patna, which is also on the western bank of the
river Kanva about 8 kms south of Dodda-Malur, evidently
constituted adjoining administrative urban units, under the
names of Rajendrasimha chaturvedimangalam and Nigarilisola-
puram, names given to them during the Middle Chola period.
2 l8
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Nigarilisolapuram was evidently a nagaram, an urban unit
administered by the mercantile community, since in one of the
inscriptions dated in a . d . 1007, the nagarattom (the members of the
mercantile community constituting a guild) of Nigarilisolapuram
is referred to.
In this township there were two fine temples built during the
days of Rajaraja I, one named Arumolisvaram Udaiya Maha-
devar temple, dedicated to Siva, and the other Jayangondasola
Vinnagar, dedicated to Vishnu. Today they are in a sad state
of neglect and stand out as two decrepit reminders of the glorious
days that they had known. They are set in the midst of cultivated
fields and are now outside the village limits in a westerly direc-
tion. There is a grand lake as one approaches the village from the
east, which must have been a gift of the Cholas to the prosperous
township close by.
The two temples now called Arkesvarar temple and Narayana-
svamy temple are separated from each other only by a hundred
metres or so.
51. Arkesvarar(Arumolisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar) temple*
Seven inscriptions have been found on the walls and pillars
of this temple. Of them the earliest are dated in a . d . 1013 and
1015 respectively. The former, found engraved on the outside
of the south wall, is dated in the second regnal year of Kop-
Parakesaripanmar alias Sri Rajendrasola devar and is incomplete,
but we get the information that certain inhabitants of Manalur,
including Kottayan Uttaman alias Solavichchadirag-Gamundan
and Vidiyan Kottayan alias Idava Gamundan received some
assets as a gift in favour of the god Arumolidevisvaram Udaiya
Mahadevar of Nigarilisolapuram, which was a portion of “this
village”, for conducting the festivals of the god (EC, IV, CN,
135). Similarly, in the fourth year of Rajendra I, certain members
of the chaturvedimangalam, the first part of whose name is missing
in the inscription, received full payment in gold and gave full
*Aiso called Amritesvara temple (cf. Early C/tola Art /, PI. 104)
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
2ig
possession of certain lands, whose boundaries and other details
are specified, as tax-free devadana, for Arumolisvaram Udaiyar
of Nigarilisolapuram, which was a portion of Manalur in Kilalai
nadu. There was also a grant for the drummers at the temple
(EG, IV, CN, 139). Two other records are dated in a.d. 1152 and
1 150 respectively, and mention the gift of one pon for a bell-metal
censer and bell by one Madurantaka devan’s son, Palliperiyan,
and the gift of a certain sum of money to Gomali by Malaiyandan,
the headman of Merpadi, in order to provide for the night
offerings of rice for the god, who continues to be called almost
a hundred and fifty years later, by the same name of Arumolis-
varam Udaiyar (EC, IV, CN, 136 and 138).* We are aware
that a few decades earlier this region had temporarily gone back
to the hands of the Hoysalas but was retaken by the Cholas
during Vikrama Chola’s rule.
This temple, now called that of Arkesvarar, came into existence
during the early part of the rule of Rajaraja I and along with the
temples of Rajendrasimha-isvaram and Jayangondasola-vin-
nagar, received considerable attention from the local bodies in
this region during the period when the Cholas were ruling this
area and also under the Hoysalas. The deity was named after
one of the earliest names of Rajaraja I, Arumolidevan.
This temple faces west and is eka-tala\ it consists of the
garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa and the mahamandapa in front.
Fortunately the sikhara is still in position though its massive
stones have been loosened by rank vegetation growing from the
crevices. The square sikhara is reminiscent of the many structures
of Rajaraja I’s period as well of the later years of the Early Chola
phase. The griva-koshtas are empty. The garbhagriha walls have
niches in the middle, with flanking pilasters, and square pilasters
♦There is a record dated in a.d. 1159, when Mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla, cap-
turer of Talaikkadu and other areas, was ruling the region. Malaiyandan, the headman of
Merpadi, gave three pon for maintaining a perpetual lamp in the temple of the god Arumolich-
charam udaiyar at Manalur alias Nigarilisolapuram in Kilalai nadu of Irajendirasola valanadu
in Mudigondasola mandalam (EC IV, CN, 137). There is a fragmentary inscription (a.d.
1 160) which merely mentions Vira Ganga Jagadekamalla Poysala Sri Narasimha devar as
ruling the earth. The rest of the inscription is lost. The region continues to be called Mudi-
gondasola mandalam.
220
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
further away on either side. The garbhagriha measures 4.25 ms in
breadth and 4.95 ms in length along the axis of the temple; the
ardhamandapa is 3.20 ms in length along the axis of the temple and
is 3.75 ms in breadth; the mahamandapa in front which widens
out is 9.10 ms in breadth and 6.20 ms in length along the axis;
thus from the rear wall of the garbhagriha to the front of the
mahamandapa , the length of the temple is 1 5 ms. The ardhamandapa ,
in ruins, is supported by four very beautifully carved round pillars.
The southern wall has partially collapsed. The mahamandapa is
in shambles; the roof has given way in many places. There are
three rows of pillars, six to a row; the mahamandapa was complete-
ly walled up on all sides except for the front entrance; there is
a brief inscription on the inner surface of the western wall of this
mandapa, which is in fine calligraphy and mentions the name of
the temple, Arumolisvaram (Pis 178 and 179).
52. Narayanasvamy Temple (Jayangondasola Vinnagar
Alvar)
Eight inscriptions have been recorded on the walls of this
temple. They range over a short span of time, from a.d. 1007 to
1030. There are four inscriptions in the year a.d. 1007, and
relate to various gifts made to this temple at the time of consecra-
tion of the deity, which is called in the inscriptions Jayangonda-
sola-Vinnagar-alvar.
In the 23rd year of the reign of ‘Sri Kovirajarajakesaripanmar
alias Irajaraja devar’, the members of the assembly of Periya
Malavur alias Irajendirasingach-charuppedimangalam in
Kilalai nadu of Gangapadi, “assembled without a vacancy”
“in the temple of the god Jayangondasola- Vinnagar-alvar at
Nigarilisolapuram, which was a portion of Manalur of this nadu,
on the day the above god was set up” and made a grant of certain
lands, to provide for a daily offering of 2 nalis of rice for the god.
The members of the assembly bound themselves to plough and
cultivate the lands themselves and to bring to the temple and
measure out fully, with the marakkal named Jayangondasolan,
a certain quantity of clean paddy; they also authorised pujaris
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME
221
to receive suttukkadan and a share of the produce of the above
lands (EC, IV, CN, 128).
Similarly, the members of the assembly of Punganur alias
Tirailokkiya-madevich-charuppedimangalam in Kilalai nadu
of Gangapadi made, on the day the god Jayangondasola-Vin-
nagar-alvar was set up at Nigarilisolapuram, a grant of certain
lands as a devadana, exempt from taxes, for daily offering of 2 nalis
of rice for the above god. This order was written down as a sila-
sasanam (order in stone) under the direction of the assembly by
one Divakarayan Vasavayan, a ganattan (member of the assembly)
of this village (EC, IV, CN, 130).
In like manner, the members of the assembly of Vandur alias
Sola-madevich-charuppedimangalam in Kilalai nadu of Ganga-
padi met in the temple of Jayangondasola-Vinnagar-alvar on
the day that the deity was set up at Nigarilisolapuram and made
a grant of certain lands whose area, boundaries and other details
were specified and gave a lithic order to that effect. They also
mentioned that the tank and wells of their village could be used
for irrigating these lands. This grant was made at the instance of
the headman of Kilaru, Tamilpperiyan Gandaradittan, who was
the settlement officer of Kilalai nadu and other nadus during the
tenure of the local officer Nittavinoda Pallavaraiyar (EC, IV,
CN, 132).
The citizens of Nigarilisolapuram made a grant for the
god and a sasanam as well.
From these four inscriptions we gather that by the 23rd year
of Rajaraja I (a.d. 1007) the Vishnu temple of Jayangonda-
sola-Vinnagar-Alvar had come into being at the nagaram of
Nigarilisolapuram, described as being a part of Manalur in
Kilalai nadu and was named one of the many surnames of
Rajaraja I.
Thus this temple is a foundation of the days of Rajaraja I and
was named after one of his surnames viz-, Jayangondasolan.
In addition to these gifts, other benefactions were made a
few years later, in a.d. 1014. Some inhabitants of Manalur gave
permission to have the temple lands irrigated from the Manalur
tank (EC, IV, CN, 127).
222
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Another record relating to the third year of Rajendra I
(a.d. 1014) mentions that some members of the assembly of
Vandur gave an undertaking that, having received from the
treasury of this god 320 kalams of paddy measured by the marak-
kal called Jayangondasolan, they would deliver from that year
onwards by way of interest, 100 kalams of clean paddy; they
agreed that the entire supervision of this transaction would be
entrusted to the Sri Vaishnavas and the Five hundred of
Tiraiyayiram (tisaiyayiram) . Another record which is incomplete
also relates to the third regnal year of Rajendra I, and presum-
ably deals with a similar undertaking by one of the other
assemblies.
Finally, in an inscription (a.d. 1030) in the reign of Rajendra I,
the members of the assembly of Kudalur alias Iraja-iraja-
charuppedimangalam made a grant of certain lands to provide
for a daily offering of two nalis of rice for the god Jayangonda-sola-
Vinnagar-alvar (EC, IV, CN, 133).
Structurally of less significance to the art-historian than the
Arkesvarar temple, Jayangondasola Vinnagar Alvar temple is a
tiny piece of beauty, its walls covered over with meticulously
engraved inscriptions of considerable significance in impeccable
calligraphy, comparable with the Rajarajesvaram inscriptions
of Tanjavur. Perhaps, in its own days, this was a more important
temple than Arumolisvaram. It consists now of only the garbha-
griha, the ardhamandapa, and the remains of the wall of enclosure,
which would have given the tiru-murram, the campus of the temple,
a greater dimension than that of Arumolisvaram (Pis 180 and
181).
The temple faces west and it being without the griva and
sikhara, we could only hazard a guess that, like its sister shrine,
it must have been eka-tala; the garbhagriha measures 4.50 ms
in breadth and 4 ms in length along the axis of the temple ; the
ardhamandapa is 2.40 ms along the axis and 3.20 ms across. From
the basement to the foot of the griva, the height is 2.18 ms. The
walls of enclosure should have measured ig.qo ms in length and
14.55 ms in breadth as ascertained from the foundation of the
walls, which is all that is left of them.
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA l’s TIME 223
MALUR
KAILASESVARAR (RAJENDRASIMHESVARAM
UDAIYAR) TEMPLE 53
APPRAMEYASVAMIN TEMPLE 54
The village of Malur, also called Dodda-Malur, is about
2.50 kms from Chennapatna, the headquarters of the taluk
of the same name in the Bangalore district. It is perched on
the western bank of the meandering river Kanva, a tributary
of the river Kaveri, at the point where it crosses the Bangalore-
Mysore highway, about 64 kms south-west of Bangalore. Situated
in picturesque surroundings amid dense coconut groves are two
temples here dating back to the days of Chola hegemony over
this region ; Kailasesvarar, the Siva temple, is in a state of neglect ;
but the Vishnu temple of Apprameya is in a state of good preser-
vation ; they are only a few yards away from each other, the former
being south of the latter.
Dodda-Malur, also called Mallur-agraharam, has a long
history and tradition*; it is said that sage Yagnavalkya wrote
his celebrated Mithakshara here; Kanva rishi is said to have
worshipped the Lord Aprameyasvamy, and because of this
association, even the river on whose banks this ancient town-
ship stands came to be called Kanva -nadi. It bore the alternate
name of Jnana-mandapa-kshetram and Rajendra-simha-nagari ;
it is considered a divya-kshetram\ in more recent times, the great
saint-composer Purandhara Dasa who lived in the 16th century
visited this temple and worshipped the Lord and Navanita
Krishna, who was installed in the north-west corner of the
temple; and it was here, overwhelmed with ecstatic joy when
in communion with young Lord Krishna, that he composed the
famous song in Kannada beginning with “ Aadi sidalu Tasodha
Jagadoddharana” which has been rendered into an incomparable
visual Bharata natyam composition.
♦See Sri Apprameyasvamy Temple Renovation Committee brochure.
224
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
53. Kailasesvarar temple
Bereft of any wall of enclosure, which must have been there
in the past, the temple consists of the central shrine with a garbha-
griha without any superstructure, an antarala and a mahamandapa ;
the entire complex is a unitary structure, with a kalyana mandapa
in front, which is of a slightly later date; there is a massive gateway
to the courtyard of the temple, which belongs to a much later
date (the Vijayanagara period?) and is shorn of the upper storeys.
On the south wall of the central shrine, there is a highly
obliterated inscription, datable to circa a.d. 1000, which men-
tions for the first time the existence of a temple dedicated to the
deity called Rajendrasimha Isvaram Udaiyar at Periya Maluvur
alias Rajendrasimha chaturvedimangalam in Kalikala-sola
valanadu of Mudikondasola mandalam. It refers to the setting
up of an image of god Gandaraditta Vitankar, by one Sivajnana
Gandaraditta, who would appear to have been a general of the
Chola army evidently stationed here. It mentions that he pur-
chased some lands and granted them, with exemption from taxes,
to this deity (EC, IV, CN, 92). The next record, datable to
about a.d. 1010, is also highly obliterated ; we learn that Maluvur
was in Kilalai nadu of Rajendrasola valanadu [Ibid. 87) . From a
record of about a.d. ioio also highly obliterated, we learn that
Maluvur was in Kilalai nadu of Rajendrasola valanadu {Ibid. 87).
A record of about a.d. 1014 is more informative. A Kramavittan
(full name is not discernible) purchased from the assembly certain
lands for maintaining a perpetual lamp to be burnt before the
god Sri Kailasam Udaiyar. A similar grant of land, the boundaries
of which are mentioned in detail, is made for providing the noon
offerings of rice and for ghee for the god Appirameya-Vinnagar
alvar of the same village. This charity was placed at the “holy
feet of the Sri Vaishnavas” {Ibid. 88c). Another epigraph of the
same date is recorded in the third year of the reign of Kop-
Parakesarivanmar alias Sri Irajendrasola devar and relates
to the grant of certain lands for the goddess Durgaiyar, on the
bund of the pond which a local citizen caused to be dug, in order
to provide for offerings of rice, oil for lamps and for the pujari
{Ibid. 88). A record of a.d. 1024 relates to the 13th regnal year
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA I’s TIME
225
of Rajendra I and mentions that the members of the assembly
of Irajendirasinga-saruppedimangalam sold 300 kulis of land
to the temple, on receipt of money from the king (Ibid. 84).
A full record dated in the 23rd year of Rajendra I (a.d. 1034)
is found on the back of the north wall which after narrating the
full birudas and prasasti of the king, mentions that the members
of the great assembly of Rajendrasimha-chaturvedimangalam,
having received gold from a servant of Sri Rajendrasola devar
(the headman of Puliyur in Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu in
Chola mandalam) gave certain lands free of all imposts in order
to provide offerings of rice (specified), vegetables, ghee, betel
leaves and areca nuts for the god Adavallan Rajendrasola-singar
and His Consort set up in the temple of Rajendrasimha Isvaram
Udaiyar of “our village” (Ibid. 83 and 84). There is a brief record
of the fourth year of Kovirajakesarivanmar alias Sri Virarajendra
devar, whose prasasti is given in full (Ibid. 85).
From the inscriptions in this temple, we come to know that
the village of Periya Maluvur was rechristened Rajendrasimha-
chaturvedimangalam after the conquest of this region by Raja-
raja I; that it was located in the subdivision of Kilalai nadu in
the district of Rajendra valanadu; the whole of the western and
southern Mysore region was rechristened Mudigondasola manda-
lam, just as Gangavadi was renamed Nigarilisola mandalam,
both after surnames of Rajaraja I. A Siva temple was built in the
place and named Rajendrasimha-Isvaram after a surname of
Rajaraja I. Evidently, a contingent of the occupation army was
stationed here and one of its chief officers set up a sculpture called
Gandaraditta Vitankar, named after himself. An image of the god-
dess Durga was set up on the bund of a tank dug in the village
by a local citizen in the 3rd year of Rajendra I. Later on, in the
reign of the same ruler, the headman of Puliyur (a servant of
Rajendra I) donated and set up images of Adavallan Rajendra-
sola-singar and His Consort, evidently images of Nataraja and
Sivakama sundari. The main deity continued to be called by its
alternate name of Kayilasamudaiyar till the advent of the
Hoysalas, when the name changed to Kailasesvarar, its present
name.
226
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The garbhagriha is a square 5.80 ms to a side and the antarala
projects 2.35 ms forward being narrower in width than the
garbhagriha by .90 m. The mahamandapa is asymmetrically placed
across the axis of the temple, the northern wing projecting to a
greater extent than thesouthern; it measures 13.25 ms by 9.55 ms.
The kalyana-mandapa is a beautiful open pavilion with finely
carved pillars, three rows of four each, the foremost outer pillars
being carved in a style different from others. The northern pillar
bears an inscription in fine calligraphy proclaiming that the
pavilion was erected by one Tillaikkuttan; it is datable to circa
a.d. 1 1 00 (Pis 182 and 183).
Unlike the temples in the heartland of the empire, the Kailases-
varar temple has no icons in the garbhagriha or antarala niches,
which are mere shallow tokens, as in Chola temples in Pandi
Nadu.
There are four structures which served as subsidiary shrines;
one for Ghandesvarar is at its appropriate place close to and
north of the garbhagriha and the antarala. The deity faces west.
The other three structures, which are rectangular in section,
are now empty and are all to the west of the garbhagriha, evidently
having housed Ganesa in the south-west, Subrahmanyar in the
west and Jyeshtha in the north-west. Thus, even in the conquered
land, we notice the vogue of the homeland regarding the ashta-
parivara devatas being adopted. We found the same practice in
respect of the Chola temples of Rajaraja I’s days in Pandi Nadu.
54. Apprameyasvamy temple
The earliest reference to the existence of this temple is con-
tained in an inscription which may be dated in a.d. 1019; this
is found inscribed on the north side of the basement of the shrine
and is in Tamil. It mentions that the mahajanas of Malavur alias
Rajendrasimha-chaturvedimangalam granted certain privileges
to a person (whose name is obliterated) in connection with
some houses of the village ; and the order signed by the inhabitants
of the village is in the name and on behalf of the deity, Sri Ap-
prameya (EG, IV, CN, 96). Another record dated around a.d.
1034 mentions that the assembly of Malavur granted certain
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
227
lands to provide for offerings of rice for the god Manavalalvar,
who was pleased to take up his abode in the courtyard of the
temple {Ibid. 95). Another record datable to around a.d. 1050
deals with a grant of land to god Appirameyapperumal {Ibid. 95 a) .
One Nilakanta devar gave liberally towards the replacement
of the jewellery lost from where they were kept buried during the
disturbed days prior to a.d. 1166. The same person, it is men-
tioned in a record found on the north basement, gave un-asked,
a sum of money to the mahajanas for repairing a tank {Ibid. 97 a.).
In all likelihood, the present structure of the Vishnu temple
came into existence during the days of Rajaraja I on an earlier
foundation. Even the Ghola foundation of the Apprameya temple
has had many accretions during its long history covering the
days of the Hoysalas and later the Vijayanagara period and
much that was Ghola in it is no longer there; however the main
shell of the temple, comprising the garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa
and the mahamandapa , is original (Pis 184 and 185).
The temple faces east and is only a few yards west of the
Kailasesvarar temple. The garbhagriha measures 4.60 ms across
and 3.40 ms along the axis of the temple. It is preceded by an
ardhamandapa which is 6 ms along the axis and 10. 10 ms broad.
The mahamandapa in front of it has the same width as the ardha-
mandapa and projects 11.45 ms forward and is supported by two
rows of three pillars each.
The peristyle is perhaps original as it has much in common
with the typical peristyles of this period in the Chola mainland
but its roof has been decorated at a later date.
TADI-MAALINGI
( Jananathapuram)
JANARDANA (RAVIKULA-MANIKKA-VINNAGAR)
TEMPLE 55
The region in the present day Mysore state falling to the south
and east of the river Tungabhadra came under the Ghola hege-
mony even before the turn of the tenth century a.d. and continued
228
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
to be under their control for more than a hundred years.
The erstwhile kingdom of Gangavadi with Talakkadu as the
capital was rechristened Mudigondasola mandalam, after a
name of Rajendra I, covering portions of the present day Salem
district, the entire Mysore district, a sizable portion of the Banga-
lore district and the peripheral regions to the north and west
of the latter two districts.
The capital of Gangavadi lay stretched on both sides of the
Kaveri; the region on the southern bank of the river was called
Ten-karai Idai nadu, and Mayilangai (Mavilangai?), now cor-
rupted to Maalingi, was the southern quarters of the capital
city of Talaikkadu, which was on the north bank. Tadi Maalingi
is now a village in Tirumukkudlu-Narasipur taluk, in Mysore
district.
There are a large number of temples at Talaikkadu and Tadi
Maalingi, the ancient capital city of the Gangas, but we are
mainly concerned with the Janardana temple at Tadi Maalingi
dedicated to Vishnu; in the ancient days it was known as
Ravikula-Manikka Vinnagar. In this temple, there are a few
inscriptions belonging to the Middle and Later Chola periods
(EC, MY, TN, 31 to 36). The earliest of them relates to the days
of Rajaraja I, but the year is obliterated (EC, MY, TN, 35).
It reveals the name of this temple, namely Ravikula-Manikka-
Vinnagar. The relevant portion reads as follows:
“Svasti Sri tirumagal pola....udaiyar
sri Rajarajadevarkku yandu i...pandi ten
karai idainattu mayilangai Gamundan Vasava
Gamundan Sama Gamundan S....ngakonyanusa
Gamundan ullitta .. iv-vanaivom Periya
Kundavai Alvar Bhandarattil ninrum iwur
Iravikulamanikka Vinnagar Alvarukku...”
Another record dated in the 10th year of Rajendra I (a.d.
1022) gives the new name of Jananathapuram for this place.
From yet another record relating to the period of the Maha-
mandalesvara Vira Ganga, the capturer of Talakkadu, Gangavadi,
Nolambavadi, Banavase, Panugal, Halasige and Beluvala, under
Hoysala Vira Ballala deva, we gather that one Chibbila
TEMPLES OF RAJARAJA i’s TIME
229
Heggade made a grant to provide for the illuminations in the
temple of the god Janardana of Maalingi (Ibid. 31). From a
fragmentary inscription (Ibid. 36) we gather that Idainadu was
also called Periya nadu and was part of Madhurantaka (sola
Valanadu?) (Ibid. 36).
Thus, a temple for Vishnu was built at this place which bore
the name of Jananathapura, after a surname of Rajaraja I. The
temple itself got the name of Ravikula-Manikka-Vinnagar after
a surname of Rajaraja I. We saw that at Dadapuram, in South
Arcot district, Kundavai, the sister of Rajaraja I, built among
others a temple for Siva, named Ravikula-Manikkesvaram,
named after her brother, Rajaraja I. It is interesting to note the
association of Kundavai with this temple also (PI 406).
3
Rajendra I
(A.D. 1012 to 1044)
Rajaraja I was succeeded by his only son Rajendra I, born
of his queen Vanavan Mahadevi “in the month of Margali under
the natal star of Tiruvadirai” . TheTiruvalangadu Plates of the sixth
year of Rajendra I mention his early conquests (vide Appendix).
For two years, Rajendra had been associated, asyuvaraja, with his
father’s administration (a.d. 1012-1014) and in turn, in a.d. 1018,
he associated his eldest son, Rajadhiraja I, as co-regent and
their joint rule lasted 26 years (a.d. 1018-44). He had played
a vital role in the wars fought by his father; the earliest of them
were against the Cheras and the Pandyas, followed by the cam-
paign against Sri Lanka, after conquering which he took possess-
ion of the crown of Sundara Pandya and ‘the necklace of Indra’
deposited in the Sri Lanka capital by Rajasimha, the last of
the Pandyan rulers of the First Empire, after his defeat at the
hands of Parantaka I and his flight to the Chera country. In
this effort he was successful where his predecessor Parantaka I
had failed. Even in his father’s days soon after the conquest
of Madurai, Rajendra I was made the Viceroy of the Pandyan
region, and given the designation of “Chola-Pandya”. This
institution of appointing the heir-apparent as the viceroy of
the newly-conquered territory was responsible for the stability
of the empire which Rajaraja had so sedulously built up. A stand-
ing army was also stationed at strategic points of the empire,
like Kottaru, Brahmadesam etc. to strengthen the Government
and enable it to maintain effective control over the far flung
RAJENDRA I
231
empire. A great palace was also built at Madurai for the residence
of the Chola Pandya viceroy. This system, introduced by Raja-
raja I with such great advantage, was continued till the accession
of Kulottunga I, and its discontinuance thereafter led to the
loosening of central control over the outlying provinces of the
empire. Rajendra, as heir-apparent, was next engaged in a
war with the Western Chalukyas under Satyasraya; he invaded
the region called Rattapadi (modern Karnataka region falling
within the Krishna-Godavari doab) and a pitched battle was
fought at Hottur in Saka 929 (about a.d. 1007), described as the
bloodiest battle ever fought in that region. The Chola Viceroy
is said to have visited great destruction on the army, men, women
and children of the country; after this victory, he came to be
described as “Nurmudi Chola Rajendra Vidyadhara, son of
Rajaraja Nittavinoda” ; the whole of the Western Chalukya
kingdom, extending to the Tungabhadra region, came into the
Chola dominion as a result of this victory. He next turned his
attention to the Vengi and Kalinga territories, penetrating
as far north as the modern Ganjam district and setting up two
pillars of victoxy on the Mahendragiri mountains commemo-
rating his victory over one Vimaladitya, who may be taken to
be a Kuluta chief* and not the Vengi ruler of the same name
(ARE 396 and 397 of 1896). We are not sure whether this
war was related to the question of the rulership of the Eastern
Chalukyan kingdom of Vengi. What we do know is that Vima-
laditya, son of Vishnuvardhana, of the Eastern Chalukyas spent
a few years at the royal court at Tanjavur and that Rajaraja I’s
daughter, Kundavai was given in mariiage to him; this
alliance established cordial relations between the two kingdoms,
culminating in the accession, later on, of Kulottunga I as emperor
of both the realms.
After his accession to the throne, Rajendra in his own right
planned a digvijaya as far as the Ganga; his prasasti gives a
full account of this expedition including details of the rulers
and kingdoms subjugated by him; this account is corroborated
*Cf. History of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi by B. Venkatakrishna Rao
232
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
by contemporary records from the conquered lands, establishing
the trustworthiness of the prasasti. The areas conquered were:
Chakarak-kottam (in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh), Masuni
Desam, Madurai Mandalam, Namanik-konam, Panchapalli,
Adinagara in Odradesa (Orissa) under the rulership of Indra-
ratha, Southern Kosala, Dandabhukti ruled by Dhanapala,
Southern Lata under Rana-sura, Vangala (Bengal) under
Govinda Chandra, Uttara Lata under Mahipala, and the Pala
ruler of Bengal, described in the prasasti as the land of unceasing
rainfall ( tangaada saaral vangaala desam). After this great digviiava,
Rajendra I, who had deputed the Chola General on this ex-
pedition, received the victorious army on the banks of the Goda-
vari and brought it to his new capital now called Gangaikonda-
Cholapuram. The conquered rulers were made to bring water
from the Ganga in pots to the capital, which were emptied into
a new lake built there by Rajendra and described by the Tiru-
valangadu Plates as the Chola- gangam and as a “pillar of victory
in the form of water”:
Ti'j’UbifhRr feiiiciii i
WT stert tt II
After the Ganga expedition, Rajendra I conceived of an
even greater one, this time beyond the seas. The Chola Navy
built up by Rajaraja I had already proved its mettle during
his days at Kandalur Salai and in the conquest of the 12,000
islands off the west coast of India. It was further strengthened
in Rajendra’s days and a naval expedition was undertaken
against the powerful Sailendras of Sri Vijaya in the Indonesian
archipelago; from the prasasti portion of an inscription of the
fourteenth regnal year (a.d. 1026), we obtain many details of
the cities and kingdoms taken during this expedition. His
warships are said to have “plunged into the mid-rolling sea”
(“ alai kadal naduvul pala kalam selutti ”) and taken the city of Sri
Vijaya (modern Palenbang) in the Sumatra island, Pannai
(“bathing ghat”) identified with Panei on the east coast of
Sumatra, Malaiyur (“mountain principality”) in the southern
RAJENDRA I
233
end of the Malay peninsula, Mayuridingam (“deep sea”) identi-
fied with Ji Lo Ting mentioned by Chau Ju Kua in the region
of Jaiya towards the centre of the Malay peninsula, Ilangasokam
identified with Ling-ya-seu-kia of Chau Ju Kua’s dependencies,
south of Kedah in the Malay peninsula, Mapappalam in the
region of the isthmus of Kra, Mevilimbangam, Valaippanduru,
Talai-Takkolam which is probably the same as the Takola of
Milinda Panha and the Takkola of Ptolemy (Takupa is in the
south of the isthmus of Kra or slightly higher up on the west
coast of the Malay peninsula), Ma-Damalingam, identifiable
with Tan-ma-ling on the east coast of the Malay peninsula in
Pahang District, Uamuri Desam, a country in the northern
part of the island of Sumatra (Lamuri of the Arab geographer
and Lambri of Marco Polo), Ma-Nakkavaram identifiable
with the Nicobar Islands, and finally Kadaram, referred to
as Kataha in Sanskrit literature and as Kadaram or Kidaram
in the Kalingattupparani and in the Leyden Grant (Tamil part).
While the trans-oceanic conquests were completed well before
the end of the second decade of his rule, his other conquests
continued well into the latter half of his reign. There was a
revolt in the Pandyan region by three Pandyan Chiefs; in the
26th year of the reign, his eldest son and Crown Prince Raja-
dhiraja I suppressed the revolt; one of the Chiefs, Manabha-
rana, was beheaded; the head of another, Vira Keralan, was
trampled upon by an elephant, and Sundara Pandya, the third
Chief, was driven out of the country.* The king of Ve-nadu
was killed. Rajadhiraja I invaded also the Chera country and
killed the Chera Chief Ramakudam of Elimali (Mt. d’Efi) ; he
again destroyed the Chera fleet at Kandalur Salai and also
subdued the king of the Kupakas (near Ve-nadu) in modern
South Kerala.
A rebellion by the Ceylonese king aided by the king of
Kannakuchchi (Kanyakubja or Kanauj) was ruthlessly put down,
and both the rebel kings were beheaded.
♦See the Sivakasi Plates ( Ten Pandya Coppei Plates), Tamil History Academy, Madras, pp. 177-
206, relating to the period of Rajendra I; also SII, V, 520 (ARE 221 of 1894): frrasasti of
Rajadhiraja I.
234
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
There was fresh trouble for the Chola throne from the Western
Chalukyas. They had earlier invaded Vengi at the time of
Jayasimha II and were defeated at the battle of Musangi in
a.d. 1021. About a.d. 1022, Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern
Chalukyas became king of Vengi and ruled over it for nearly
forty one years; the Chola princess Ammangadevi, daughter of
Rajendra I, was married to that ruler. In about a.d. 1031, there
was an invasion of Vengi by the Western Chalukyas and a bloody
battle was fought at Kalidindi, with the Cholas fighting on the
side of Vengi; it is recorded that three famous Chola Generals
fought and fell in this battle, and the grateful ruler of Vengi
erected three memorial temples in their honour. With the accession
to the Western Chalukya throne of Trailokyamalla Ahavamalla
Somesvara I in a.d. 1042, another attempt was made on Vengi,
and in the battle of Dannada (Dhanyakataka), his army under
the joint command of his two sons, Vikramaditya and Vijayaditya,
was defeated by the Chola army, who later burnt and destroyed
the city of Kollip-pakkai (modern Kulpak).
At the zenith of his power, Rajendra I’s empire extended,
as graphically described in an inscription at Tirumalavadi,
from Gangai in the north to Ilangai (Sri Lanka) in the south,
and from Mahodai (modern Cranganore) in the west to Kada-
ram (Kedah) in the Malay peninsula in the east.
In a.d. 1015 and a.d. 1033, two Chola embassies were sent
to China to establish friendly, diplomatic and commercial ties
with that country. The king of Kamboja (Cambodia), Surya-
varaman I (a.d. 1000-1050), sent a war-chariot as a gesture of
goodwill to Rajendra I.
Rajendra I’s queens were: Tribhuvana Mahadevi alias
Vanavan Mahadevi, the Chief Queen; Mukkok-kilan-adigal ;
Panchavan Mahadevi; and Vira Mahadevi.
He had two daughters, Arulmoli Nangaiyar alias Tiru Ma-
devadigal, who is mentioned in connection with the present-
ation of a decorative umbrella studded with pearls to the deity
at Tirumalavadi ; and Ammangadevi, who was given in marriage
to Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern Chalukyas and who became
the mother of the future Kulottunga I.
RAJENDRA I
235
Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the leading ones
among them being Gangaikonda Cholan, Madhurantakan,
Vikrama Cholan, Mudikonda Cholan, Pandita Cholan, and
Vira Rajendran.
Rajendra I was the builder of the new capital at Gangai-
konda-Cholapuram which remained as such till the end of the
Chola empire. However, there were secondary capitals at Palai-
yarai, Chidambaram and Kanchi.
Like his father, he was also a great temple builder.
The most important of them is the one at his capital, called
Gangaikonda-Cholisvaram. Another temple, also of the same
name, was built at Kulambandal in the present day North
Arcot district. The ancient Adipurisvarar temple at Tiruvorriyur
was rebuilt of stone in his days. Another magnificent temple
built in his time is the Vachisvarar temple at Tiruppasur, in
Chingleput district. The “Siva Devale No. 2” at Polannaruva in
Sri Lanka was perhaps built during his viceroyalty there. Another
important temple of his time is the Rajendrasola vinnagaram,
now called Gopalasvamin temple, at Mannarkoyil in Tirunelveli
district, built by his Chera feudatory, Rajasimha. It was also
during his life time, that a great residential Sanskrit College
was established at Ennayiram.
Rajendra I seems to have died in his thirty-second regnal
year, corresponding to the 26th regnal year of Rajadhiraja I
(a.d. 1044), who had a long joint rule of 26 years with his
father. There is an inscription at Brahmadesam, North Arcot
district, dated in the 26th year and 120th day of Rajadhiraja I,
where it is stated that the local Assembly met under a tamarind
tree and sold land for a water-shed for “quenching the thirst”
of the king Sri Udaiyar Rajendra Choladeva and his queen
Vira Mahadeviyar who is said to have “entered the supreme
feet of Brahma in the very same tomb in which the body of
Rajendra Choladeva was interred.” This gift was made by
Senapati Madhurantakan alias Parakesari Velar, the brother
of the queen. Thus we learn that the illustrious Rajendra, the
conqueror of Gangai and Kadaram, died at Brahmadesam in
a.d. 1044 an( l his queen Vira Mahadevi committed sati and
236 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the gift for a water-shed was in honour, and for the spiritual
propitiation, of the illustrious royal couple.
We are not vouched how Rajendra I died. The mortal
remains of many of his ancestors lie buried in this region ; Aditya I
died at Tondaiman-Arrur ; Rajaditya, son of Parantaka I,
fell at Takkolam fighting the Rashtrakutas. Arinjaya died at
Melpadi. The son of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, himself, was
destined later on to die a heroic death on the elephant’s back
in the battle of Koppam ( anai-mer-runjiya — “one who died on the
back of an elephant”). We do not know if Rajendra I died of
any natural cause, a sudden mortal disease, or as an aftermath
of mortal wounds received in a frontier war. In the Varadaraja
Perumal temple at Tribhuvani (in the Union Territory of Pondi-
cherry), there is a record which gives rise to the speculation about
the manner of his death ; it is of the thirtieth regnal year of his
son Rajadhiraja I and refers to a charity named Rajendrasolan
Uttamagram instituted to secure the health of Rajendra I. The
charity got executed four years after the death of Rajendra I.
And it was a great charity indeed, providing for the recitation
of Tiruvaymoli and for the maintenance of a Vedic college
including a hostel for the pupils (ARE 176 of 1919).
Whatever be that, he was of a heroic mould and his death
marked the eclipse of a glorious character. The Gangaikonda-
cholisvaram and the Adipurisvarar temple at Tiruvorriyur are
no doubt noble memorials to this hero; but such a hallowed
spot as Brahmadesam deserves to be marked with a suitable
memorial, for there lie the ashes of the great Chola who con-
quered Gangai and Kadaram and his heroic queen Vira Mahadevi
who committed sati.
A personality of rare accomplishments and unequalled and
many-sided achievements, Rajaraja I was the inspirer of grand
ideas and dreams, and Rajendra I gave them fulfilment and
completion. Both of them are not only the greatest of South
Indian rulers, but rank among the noblest sons of India, nay,
even of the world.
Editing Thucydides, John H. Finlay Jr. says:
“Athens is new, Sparta the established power; Athens’
RAJENDRA I
237
strength is naval, Sparta’s military. Naval power reflects
a commercial economy; military power an agricultural
economy. The former encourages enterprise and initiative;
the latter tenacity and tradition. Hence one rests on demo-
cratic freedom; the other on oligarchic discipline.”
It will be no exaggeration to state that the Choi a empire under
Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I blends and reflects the spirit,
discipline and virtues of both Athens and Sparta.
236
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Appendix
Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates
“85. To this ruler of men (Rajaraja I) was born a son, Madhurantaka, whose limbs bore all
the (distinguishing) marks of earth-rulers, who resembled a different Manmatha (mind-bom)
who had defied the angry roar of Hara (Siva) ”•
XXx
“89. (This) famous (and) heroic lord of men intent upon doing meritorious deeds with
large quantities of money acquired by (the strength of) his own arm, turned his attention to the
conquest of the quarters ( digvijaya ), backed by a powerful army.
90. Accordingly, he the unequalled king Uttama Chola first started to the (southern) quarter
marked by (the asterism) Trisanku, with a desire to conquer the Pandya king, after having arranged
for the protection of his own capital.
91 . The commander of forces ( dandanatha ) of this crest-jewel of the Solar race (i.e., Madhuran-
taka) (Rajendra I) struck the Pandya king who had a powerful army. And the Pandya leaving
his own country which was the residence of (the sage) Agastya, from fear (of Madhurantaka),
sought refuge in the Malaya hill.
92. (Then) the politic son of Rajaraja took possession of the lustrous pure pearls which looked
like the seeds (out of which grew) the spotless fame of the Pandya king.
93. Having placed there his own son, the glorious Chola-Paniya, for the protection of his (i.e.
the Pandya’s) country, the light of the Solar race started for the conquest of the western region.
94. Having heard of the humiliation which the rulers of the earth were subjected to by
(the sage) Bhargava (i.e., Parasurama) on the battlefield, (and) not being able to meet him (i.e.,
Bhargava) (in battle) on earth, that proud king (Madhurantaka) set his mind upon conquering
the country called after him.”
XX X
“96. Madhurantaka fearlessly crossed the Sahya (mountain) (and) immediately attacked
the lord of the Kerala (country) together with his forces. Then a fierce battle took place which
wrought ruin upon (several) kings.
97. Having conquered the Kerala king and having annihilated the country protected by the
austerities of the chief of the Bhrigus, that prince, the abode of prosperity, turned towards his
own capital (which looked) as if (it were) dancing (in joy) with (its upraised) hands, viz., brilliant
fluttering flag-cloths and whispering welcome by (its) sweetly (jingling) waist-belts of (damsels)
with unsteady eyes.”
XX X
“99. Having appointed his own son, the glorious Chola-Pandya, to protect the western country,
he, the very god of Death (Kala) to the Taila-family (i.e., the Western Chalukyas), entered
(the town of) Kanchi, which was like the waist-band ( kanchi ) of the goddess-earth.
too. Observing that the lord of the Chalukyas, king Jayasimha, was the seat of the (sinful)
Kali (age), Rajendra-Chola— himself the destroyer of the Kali (age) — started first to conquer
him (i.e., Jayasimha) alone.
101. It may be no wonder that the fire of his anger burst into flame as it came into contact
with the descendant of Taila.
102. While this king with anger was engaged in vanquishing Jayasimharaja, very strangely
(indeed), the fire of grief of the Ratta ladies burst into flame, washed by the tears (trickling) from
(their) eyes.”
X
X
X
RAJENDRA I
239
“104. The forces of Cholendrasimha and Jayasimha fought an intensive battle, each (side)
kindling the anger of the other, wherein the fire generated by the tusks of huge infuriated ele-
phants dashing (against each other), burnt all the banners.
105. That lord of Rattarashtra (i.e., Jayasimha) in order to escape from the fire of the terrible
rage of the ornament of the Solar race (i.e., Rajendra-Chola) took to his heels with fear, abandon-
ing all (his) family, riches and reputation.”
XXX
107. The army of Rattaraja, hemmed in on all sides by the continuous downpour of arrows
(and) beleaguered by the heroes of the army of the ornament of the Solar race, was (completely)
destroyed just as a range of clouds tossed about by the force of furious winds.
108. Having defeated Rattaraja with (his) forces, the son of Rajaraja, well- versed in polity
and attended by all his numerous virtues such as courage, prowess and victory, got (back) to
(his) (capital) town.
109. This light of the Solar race, laughing at Bhagiratha who had brought down the Ganga
(to the earth from heaven) by the power of (his) austerities, wished to sanctify his own country
with the waters of the Ganga (i.e., the river Ganges) carried thither through the strength of
(his) arm.
no. Accordingly (he) ordered the commander of the army who had powerful battalions
(under his control), who was the resort of heroism (and) the foremost of diplomats, to subdue
the enemy kings occupying (the country on) the banks of that (river).
in. Before him, as from the slopes of the Himalayas, marched a very large army like the
tremendous volume of the waters of the Ganga with wavy rows of moving horses, causing all the
quarters to resound with its confused clamour.
1 12. The van of his army crossed the rivers by way of bridges formed by herds of elephants. The
rest of the army (crossed the same) on foot, (because) the waters in the meantime had dried up
being used by elephants, horses and men.
1 13. The soldiers of Vikrama-Chola (Rajendra Chola I) having reached the points of the com-
pass (first) by the dust raised by crowds of elephants, horses and foot-men, quickly entered
(next) the country of hostile kings.”
XXX
“137. May Rajendra-Chola be victorious all over the earth, whose many gem(-like) virtues
step beyond the bounds of the egg of the three worlds; (the number of) whose enemies is not
sufficiently (large) for the (full) display of (his) splendid heroism; who (like) an ocean is the
birth-place of all innumerable gem (-like) virtues; for (the grasp of) whose intelligence sciences
(as they now exist) are limited (in number) ; who being solicited gives to the crowd of suppliants
super-abundant wealth ; and who is the birth-place of prosperity.”
4
Temples of Rajendra I’s Time
GAN GAIKONDASOLAPUR AM
56 GANGAIKONDA-CHOUSVARAM
Gangaikondasolapuram, now an insignificant village in the
Udaiyarpalayam taluk of Tiruchy district, lies on the road
from Tiruchy to Chidambaram running almost parallel to and
on the northern bank of the river Kollidam, and at a distance
of 10 kms to the east of Jayangondasolapuram (which itself
lies on one of the highways from Kumbakonam to Vriddha-
chalam). It is bounded on the west by the celebrated Cholagan-
gam lake and on the east by the river Vadavaru. Out of an
otherwise rather dreary and barren skyline for miles around,
the lofty srivimana of the great temple of Gangaikonda-cholisvaram
here lifts its stately head as if scanning the vast arena of the
bygone empire. In the heyday of Chola rule, its srivimana pos-
sibly served as the tallest watch tower of the city. It is no ancient
city sung by the Devaram hymnists, but a creation of the early
eleventh century, and the only literary references to it are found
in the Tiru Isaippa of Kuruvur devar, the Kalingattup-parani of
Jayangondar, the Muvar Ula of Ottakkuttar (the court poet
of Vikrama Chola and his two immediate successors), and the
Koyil Olugu (a legendary history of the Srirangam temple). The
Vikramankadeva charita of Bilhana, the court poet of Vikrama-
ditya VI, the Western Chalukya ruler, refers to Gangapuri in
TEMPLES Or RAJENDRA i’s TIME
24I
the context of Vikramaditya’s sojourn in the Chola capital in
connection with his efforts to control its destiny during the
troubled days of a.d. 1069-70.
The City
In a.d. 1014, Rajaraja I died and his son Rajendra I, till
then Yuvaraja and Co-ruler, succeeded him. Rajendra I in
turn associated his son Rajadhiraja I with his reign as Yuvaraja
in a.d. 1018, in which capacity the latter served for 26 years
(a.d. 1018-44) till the death of Rajendra I.
The earliest reference to the Ganga expedition of Rajendra I
is found in a record of his eleventh regnal year (a.d. 1023).
The earliest reference to Gangaikondasolapuram is found in an
inscription of his seventeenth year (a.d. 1029). The city and the
palace there must have come into existence between a.d. 1023
and 1029. How much earlier it was designed and its building
begun is a matter of conjecture. He might have conceived of the
scheme of a new capital even during the last years of his father.
His total dedication to the new temple is illustrated by the
following sequence of events. In the nineteenth year, 242nd
day of his reign, he made a gift of 2,000 kalams of paddy per
year as acharya bhogam to the chief priest Sarva Siva Pandita
Saivacharya of the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur and his des-
cendants (a.d. 1031-32). Four years later, he himself transferred
these land gifts, made earlier in perpetuity to the Rajarajesvaram,
to his newly built temple of Gangaikonda-cholisvaram (twenty-
third year, a.d. 1035). Nine years later, he died at Brahmadesam
(a.d. 1044). These transfers are recorded 25 years later in an
inscription of Vira Rajendra. There is no record of Rajendra I
himself of this transaction (on the walls of this temple or else-
where). In fact, the total absence of any inscriptions of his in
this temple remains an enigma.
The city had the advantage of being built from scratch;
it was carefully planned and laid out according to the injunc-
tions of treatises on architecture and town-planning; the city
would appear to have had an inner and an outer wall of forti-
fication, identifiable with the utpadaivittu madil and the Rajendra-
242 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
solan madil respectively. From the debris, it is clear that the walls
were built of large-sized burnt bricks. The palace also would
appear to have been built of brick, with many of the buildings
in it being multi-storeyed. Flat tiles were used for the roofs and
polished wood for pillars and panelling. Granite stumps which
presumably supported wooden pillars have been recovered from
the debris. We have inscriptional references to a palace-building
called Chola-Keralan tirumaligai (after a surname of Rajendra I),
and to a throne in it called Mavali Vanadhirajan. An inscription
of the 49th year of Kulottunga I (a.d. hi 9) as well as later inscrip-
tions make reference to a palace-building called Gangaikondasolan
maligai. We hear of another wall of enclosure called Kulottunga-
solan tirumadil ; and of highways and roads called Kulottungasolan
tirumadil peruvali, Vilangudaiyan peruvali and Kulayanai-pona peruvali ;
Rajarajan peruvali and Rajendra peruvali were evidently laid out
even at the time of the creation of the city. We also get the
names of a few suburbs of the city such as Virasolapuram, Kolla-
puram, Meykavalputtur, Vanavanallur, Virabhoga and others.
Vastu and Agama requirements of town-planning were im-
plicitly followed as regards the disposition of the various temples
in the diverse corners of the city; thus, the Siva temple is to
the north-east ( isana ) of the city, and the Sasta (Ayyanar) temple
to the south-east; and, according to the local population, an
image of Vishnu with Consort was found till recently in its
original place to the west of the site of the palace ruins.
But, of all the remains, the one most certainly worth a visit
is the magnificent temple of Gangaikonda-cholisvaram, dedi-
cated to Siva and built in close imitation of the Rajarajesvaram
at Tanjavur. The Linga in the sanctum rises to a height of 3.96 ms
(13') and is said to be the largest such in any South Indian
temple. The temple-campus, whose courtyard is 172.82 ms (567')
long and 96.93 ms (318') wide, consists of the main shrine
in the middle, two subsidiary shrines to its north and south
called the Vada Kailasam and Ten Kailasam respectively,
a shrine for Chandesvarar, one for Mahishasuramardini, a
rather large step-well called the Simhakkeni (lion-well) , a massive
stucco Nandi, a bali-pitham east of the Nandi, and an alankara
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
243
mandapa (in ruins), a much later construction. All these are
encompassed by a vestigial wall of enclosure* in whose eastern
wing there was a gopuram ; the superstructure of the latter has
fallen, and only the basal portion is left.
The Main Shrine
In its structural constituents, the main shrine closely resembles
its Tanjavur counterpart. It consists of a garbhagriha , an ardha-
mandapa and a mahamandapa. They share a common massive
adhishthanam, mounted on an equally massive upapitham. Pro-
jecting horizontally along the dividing line between these two
is a narrow running platform, going the full round, and im-
parting a light-and-shade effect to the structure. The upapitham
is decorated by a series of mythical and other animals, mostly
lions and leogriffs, interspersed with low relief panels of floral
design. A portion of the upapitham is possibly embedded in the
ground, the level of the latter having risen in course of time.
The sides of the adhishthanam contain many of the formal
mouldings such as the padmam, kumudam, varimanam (here, an
ornate frieze of yalis carrying riders) and vari, though some,
like the kantham and the kapotam, are absent. The upapitham is
103.63 ms (340') long and 30.48 ms (ioo') wide. The garbhagriha
and mahamandapa are also of the same width, and respectively
30.48 ms (ioo') and 53.34 ms (175') long. The ardhamandapa is
shaped like a constricted square neck between the two, of side
19.81 ms (65').
THE SRI VI MAMA
The dominating element of the temple is of course the
srivimana. The garbhagriha -walls rise to a height of 10.67 ms (35')
♦Extract from a local publication of a.d. 1855, reproduced in The Indian Antiquary, Vol. IV,
p.274: “When the lower Kolerun anikut was built, the structure (of Gangaikonda cholisvaram)
was dismantled of a large part of the splendid granite sculptures which adorned it, and the
enclosing wall was almost wholly destroyed in order to obtain materials for the work. The poor
people did their utmost to prevent this destruction and spoliation of a venerated edifice by the
servants of a Government that could show no title to it, but of course without success. They
were also punished for contempt. A promise was made that a wall of brick should be built in
place of the stone wall that was pulled down; but unhappily it must be recorded that this promise
has never been redeemed.”
244
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
over the adhishthanam , and are divided into two (equal) horizontal
courses, as in the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur, by a massive
cornice going all around. The lower and upper courses each have
five bays on each of the three free sides (i.e., other than the eastern).
Of the five bays, the central bay is the widest, the end bays are
square, while the intermediate bays are oblong, with the vertical
side longer than the horizontal. Each bay is terminated at its
flanks by a canton in the form of a pilaster; in the central bay,
the wide expanse of its facade is relieved by two more pilasters
(of the same size as the cantons) framing the central and main
niche (of that course and that side), instead of the diminutive
pilasters that frame the niches in the remaining bays. There are
thus twelve large and beautiful pilasters on each side of each course.
Above the intervening cornice, the design and pattern are replicas
of the lower course, only the niche figures varying. The pilasters
are massive, square in cross-section, and have all the constituent
elements including a rather massive abacus (palagai) etching a
discontinuous line along the upper reaches of each course, below
the cornice. An interesting feature, found here as well as at
Tanjavur, is the indulgence in cameos wherever there was
space between the pilasters and the niche, as is the case with the
central and the end bays. The cameos in the central bay are in
four horizontal rows of anecdotal panels relating to some Puranic
story centering round the niche figure. The space between the
vari, and varimanam mouldings below the central and the end bays
carries some fine dancing figures; there is no such (or other)
embellishment under the intermediate bays. In the treatment of
the recesses between the bays, there is a difference between the
lower and the upper courses; each recess of the lower course has
a kumbha-panjara, and of the upper, a niche with a figure. The
mid-level cornice is supported on a beam ( uttiram ) resting on a
three-pronged corbel with a bevelled edge and a tenon. The
cornice is segmented into five lengths corresponding to the bays
below (and above) and has floral designs in cameo over the cor-
ners and decorative kudus, each with a semi-circular niche in the
centre and a simha-mukha (lion-face) crowning it; the central
segment has two such kudus and the others one each. There is
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
245
a yali frieze above the cornice and a bkutagana frieze (overshadow-
ed by the heavy inward curve of the coinieel below it. There
is a hara over the prastara.
The srivimana comprises nine talas including the ground tala
(as against thirteen at Tanjavur). The upper talas are gradually
diminishing replicas of the lowest. The ornamentation consists
of square and oblong pavilions; the central and intermediate
ones on each side project forward beyond the alignment of the
corner kutas; this planned, symmetrical unevenness of surface
treatment lends a sinuousness to the tower that we do not have
at Tanjavur. The griva is embellished with niches in the four
cardinal directions and, at the four corners of the square platform
supporting it, there are four nandis. The gffya-niches are crowned
with kirtimukhas. The sikhara is not of one stone, despite local
belief, and is draped on the top with lotus petal designs. It is
(even in proportion to the rest of the structure) smaller than that
at Tanjavur. The gold-coated stupi is of metal, with a lotus-bud
design at the top. It is said to bear an inscriptional reference to
Nallakka-tola Udaiyar, a poligar of Udaiyarpalayam; he might
have gifted a new stupi or re-gilded the original.
The srivimana rises to a height of only 48.77 ms (160') as
compared to the 63.40 ms (208') of the Rajarajesvaram; even
so, it dominates the vicinity. The base of the srivimana in both
the cases being virtually of the same dimensions, the reduced
height, the smaller number of talas and the concavity imparted
to the superstructure here in contrast to the severely straight
pyramidal form of the Tanjavur counterpart, all add up to
present an entirely different image here from what obtains at
Tanjavur. To quote Percy Brown (JISOA, Vol. II) : “In spite
of its almost cloying richness viewed as a whole, there is a fine
fully matured beauty in this Chola masterpiece.” In fine, he
terms it “the feminine counterpart of Tanjore”.*
* ‘These measurements are based on those found in the standard published books. Our plan
records slightly different data furnished by our Surveyor.
See also Tables I and II showing the height of the superstructure in relation to that of sanc-
tum, and of the proportion of the plinth of the temple in relation to its height in respect of some
South Indians Temples in the scholarly publication ‘The Kampaharesvara Temple* by H.
Sarkar, brought out by the Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamilnadu.
246 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
THE ARDHAMANDAPA
The ardhamandapa connects the garbhagriha and the maha-
mandapa and is approachable from the north and the south by
flights of steps located between the east wall of the garbhagriha
and the west wall of the mahamandapa. The steps are in two stages
as at Tanjavur, the first stage taking us to a landing on a level
with the top of the upapitham, and the second stage to the thresh-
old of the doorway to the ardhamandapa (on a level with the top
of the adhishthanam) . These doorways are guarded by massive
dvarapalas. The mandapa is supported by plain, square and heavy
pillars. On the eastern wall of the ardhamandapa (and facing west),
there are series of thematic panels depicting puranic episodes (on
either side of the entrance to the mahamandapa) . One set of three
panels illustrates Siva humbling Ravana’s pride; another depicts
Vishnu in the act of pulling out one of His eyes on finding that
He was one short of the 1,008 lotuses intended to be offered to
Siva in worship, and Siva bestowing grace on Him ( Vishnu -
anugraha). Uma’s marriage to Siva is the theme of a panel close
to the doorway. Vishnu is the kanya-data (giving away the bride)
Comparative Statement of the Height of a Few Temples
(H. Sarkar)
Place
Temple
Total
Height
Height of
Sanctum
Height of
Superstructure
1 Kanchipuram
Kailasanathar
20.28 ms
5.49 ms
14.79 ms
66.33'
18.00'
46-33
2 Kanchipuram
Vaikuntha Perumal
22.30 ms
6.60 ms
15.70 ms
72-75'
2142'
51-33'
3 Mamallapuram
Shore Temple
16.96 ms
4.06 ms
12.90 ms
55-42'
13.20'
42.22'
4 Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
59.98 ms
15.85 ms
44.13 ms
196.50'
52.00'
14450'
5 Gangaikonda-
Gangaikonda-
54.86 ms
14.78 ms
40.08 ms
Cholapuram
Solisvaram
180.00'
48.50'
131-5°'
6 Darasuram
Airavatesvarar
25.17 ms
5.82 ms
19.35 ms
83.00'
I9-50'
63-50'
7 Tribhuvanam
Kampaharesvarar
38.45 ms
10.79 ms
27.66 ms
126.00'
35-25'
90-75'
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME 247
and Brahma the chief priest. Close to and north of the doorway
is a panel dealing with the Kirata-Arjuna episode. At the northern
extreme, there are two panels; one depicts the Markandeyar epi-
sode (Kalantaka) and the other the Chandesvarar episode. The
quality of these sculptures is not to be compared to that of the
massive and exquisite sculptures on the garbhagriha walls.
NICHE SCULPTURES
What may place Gangaikonda-cholisvaram on a higher
pedestal than even Rajarajesvaram is a delectable set of sculptures
found on the garbhagriha walls, numbering as many as fifty. They
are boldly conceived and executed with consummate skill and
dedication. The very soul of the craftsman would seem to have
been poured out into these forms in stone. Of all these products
of the Dravidian ateliers, three stand out as superb specimens:
Chandesanugraha-murti, Nataraja and Sarasvati, which have
luckily not been touched by the hand of time or of the vandal.
The two-tiered garbhagriha offered the sculptor two separate
“canvases” to work on. The niche-figures in the cardinal direc-
tions are the traditional ones: Dakshinamurti in the south and
Brahma in the north, in both tiers; and, in the west (rear), Vishnu
in the lower tier and Lingodbhavar in the upper. There being
four bay-niches and four recess-niches in the upper tier and four
bay-niches in the lower, other than the central niches already
covered above, we get as many more niche-figures — four in the
lower tier and eight in the upper tier of each free side. On the
east wall of the garbhagriha, there are two niche-figures in the
first tier and four in the second tier. Being a mahaprasada, the
temple gave full scope to the artists to follow the Agamic specifi-
cations, and thus we have both Lingodbhavar and Vishnu as
niche figures in the west (rear), in the lower tier; Subrahmanyar
occupies another such niche, yet another special feature. Chandes-
anugraha-murti in the northern lower-tier niche of the eastern
wall has precedents in the Pallava temples of Airavatesvara,
Muktesvarar and Matangesvarar at Kanchipuram. The (clock-
wise) disposition of the images on the free sides, in both tiers,
is given below:
248
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
South
Ganapati
Ardhanari
Dakshinamurti
Hariharar
Nataraja
LOWER TIER
West
North
Gangadharar
Lingodbhavar
Mahavishnu
Subrahmanyar
Vishnu Anugraha-
murti
Kalantaka
Durga
Brahma
Bhairavar
Kamantakar
UPPER TIER
South
Kalantakar
A four-armed
standing deity
-do-
Yama
Dakshinamurti
A four-armed deity
-do-
-do-
Nirutti
West
Bhikshatanar
A three-headed
figure
Varuna (?)
Vishnu
Lingodbhavar
Brahma
Vayu
A four-armed deity
-do-
North
Gauri Prasada
A four-armed
deity
-do-
Soma
Brahma
A four-armed deity
Isana
Bhuvarahar
Subrahmanyar
In the first tier of the east wall of the garbhagriha, there are images
of Chandesanugrahamurti on the north and Kankaladharar on
the south, overlooking the flights of steps leading to the ardha-
mandapa on the north and south sides respectively. Facing them,
on the west wall of the mahamandapa, are images of Sarasvati and
Lakshmi, respectively. In the second tier of the east wall of the
garbhagriha, there are images of Gajasamharamurti and Chandra
in the north (above the Chandesanugrahamurti image of the
first tier) and Surya and Agni in the south (above the Kankala-
dharar image of the first tier).
A chart showing the positions of these icons in the temple
walls will be found among the illustrations.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
249
The figures in the upper tier may be grouped into : the normal
niche figures found in the cardinal points; the eight guardian
deities or dikpalas (listed clockwise from the south-east, these
are: Agni, Yama, Nirutti, Varuna, Vayu, Soma, Isana and
Indra — the last not represented here; and the Ekadasa (Eleven)
Rudras (Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, Isana,
Mrityunjaya, Vijaya, Kiranaksha, Aghorastra, Srikantha and
Mahadeva) , who, according to the Agamic texts, are to be shown
standing, with four arms, holding the parasu and the mriga in the
upper hands while the lower ones are in the abhaya and varada
poses; besides these figures, Kalantakar, Bhikshatanar, Vishnu,
Brahma, Gauri Prasada, Bhuvarahar and Subrahmanyar are also
depicted.
THE DVARAPALAS
There are guardian deities here in all the places where we
have them in the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur, except for three
pairs which are found only in the latter flanking the big doorways
on the three sides of the garbhagriha: in fact, even these openings
are not there at Gangaikonda-cholisvaram. We have one pair
in front of the gopuram. Victims of the ravages of time and man,
they now lie face down in front of the gopuram, which is itself in
ruins. A second pair stands majestically at the entrance to the
mahamandapa which must once have been grand and imposing.
There are a pair each at the entrance from the mahamandapa
to the ardhamandapa and again from the latter to the garbhagriha,
and flanking the flights of steps leading to the ardhamandapa
from the courtyard in the north as well as south.
THE MAHAMANDAPA
The plinth, consisting of the upapitham and the adhishthanam
supporting the garbhagriha, ardhamandapa and mahamandapa, also
supports a pavilion akin to a manimandapa in front of the last-
mentioned. The mahamandapa and this pavilion are separated by
the flight of steps from the courtyard leading to either of them.
The continuity of the mouldings on the adhishthanam indicates
that the plinth has remained intact and that the main structure
250
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
of the temple-complex comprised these four units. The original
mahamandapa must have been an imposing structure of twice the
present height, in keeping with the rest of the structure of this
mahaprasada. As it now stands, only the plinth and remnants of
its walls at the western extremity are original, the side walls,
pillars and roof having been reconstructed. From the surviving
portion, it is clear that the prastara of the mahamandapa must have
been on a level with that of the srivimana, and that the cornice
which divides the garbhagriha walls into two courses must have
continued on to the mahamandapa walls as well. There must have
been niches in the two courses so created on the latter walls, of
which only one in the upper course and a few in the lower course
have survived. They must have housed various subsidiary deities,
such as the Vidyesvaras, Vasus and Adityas.
There is a central passage leading from the main entrance
to the garbhagriha through the ardhamandapa ; the size of the
dvarapalas at the main entrance suggests that there was no ceiling
above this passage except the original roof (at twice the height
of the present roof) ; over the two platforms created by, and on
either side of, this passage, there must have been a pavilion in
two tiers, the roof of the first tier being at the level of the present
roof (equivalently, at the level of the cornice which divided the
outer wall into two courses).
THE S. AURA-PITH A
In the north-east corner of the mahamandapa, there is a delicately
carved representation of the Sun and the eight other planets of
Hindu astrology, on an altar. It is in the form of a full-blown
lotus on a square pedestal, in two tiers. The upper tier has the
eight planets in the eight principal directions, and the lotus stands
for the Sun, thus making up the nine grahas. The lower tier of
the pedestal is crafted as a wheeled chariot drawn by seven horses,
representing the seven days of the week. The wheels are orna-
mented with twelve petals each, representing the twelve months
of the year. At the corners of the chariot are representations of
celestial beings carrying flower-garlands.
The style, workmanship and even the sculptural theme of
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME 25 1
this piece bespeak its Chalukyan origin and it might have been
brought here as a war trophy.
LOOSE STONE SCULPTURES
Notice should be taken of a fine set of loose sculptures found
in the courtyard of the temple. Assembled together on a platform
by the side of the northern entrance to the temple are sculptures
of Bhikshatanar, Lingodbhavar, Ganapati, Subrahmanyar, Devi,
Virabhadrar, Brahma, Durga, Chandrasekharar, Vrshabhantikar,
Vinadharar and four of the lesser divinities. In the southern wing
of the courtyard, close to the Ten Kailasam, images of Ardhanari,
Gajalakshmi and Surya (two) are found partially buried in the
ground. Near the lion-well is an icon of Vishnu with Sridevi.
Many of these icons evidently occupied the niches of the rnaha-
mandapa walls once.
BRONZES
It is surprising that the bronzes of this temple should have
survived nearly a thousand years, particularly as the hand of the
enemy must have fallen heavily on the palace and the city which
was the capital of the Cholas. The Tanjavur temple has not
shared this good fortune, for hardly any are left of the vast array
of metals gifted to it by the king, his sister, his queens and his
nobles. Perhaps even here, only a few of the original gifts has
survived. Among them are two pieces of outstanding beauty
and grandeur: the Somaskandar group and Karttikeya. The
images of Siva and Uma in the former are giant-sized (Skanda
is missing), forming perhaps the biggest set among such icons
of the Chola or of any other period; datable definitely to the
age of Rajendra I, this set must have been used as the proces-
sional deity-set. The Karttikeya image, measuring 107 cms in
height, stands on a padmapitham, of which the lotus is realistic
and not stylised; it has four arms: the right upper hand holds
the sakti (partially broken), the right lower, the sword, of which
only the handle remains, the left upper, a cock and the left lower,
a shield. Among the others, also of remarkable workmanship,
are the images of Bhogesvari, Durga, Adhikara-Nandi and
252
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Vrishabhavahanar. The Bhogesvari image, stationed as usual near
the threshold of the sanctum, is two-armed and has an arresting
smile and a perfect torso. The four-armed, standing image of
Durga is in the samabhanga (erect) posture ; the upper hands hold
the sankha and the chakra, while the lower arms are in the varada
and kati-avalambita poses* (Pis 204 to 231).
The Subsidiary Shrines
(A) VADA KAIL AS AM
(B) TEX KAILASAM
As already mentioned, there are two subsidiary shrines, one
on either side of the main shrine, called the Vada (northern)
and the Ten (southern) Kailasams.** Both shrines were originally
dedicated to Siva; the Vada Kailasam has since been converted
into an Amman shrine, most probably in the early years of the
Later Chola period, when separate Amman shrines came into
being for the first time. Both face east, and are alike in most
respects.
The Vada Kailasam comprises a garbhagriha, an ardhamandapa,
and a mahamandapa (which appears to be a later addition). It has
a dvi-tala srivimana with a griva, curvilinear sikhara and stupi.
The garbhagriha walls contain three niches with the usual images
installed in them: Dakshinamurti in the south, Lingodbhavar
in the west (rear) and Brahma (bearded) in the north. The
ardhamandapa niche-figures are: Ganapati, Nataraja, Bhikshatanar
and Subrahmanyar in the south, and Gauri Prasada, Durga,
*Two other bronzes of the period of Rajendra I found elsewhere deserve mention. These are
the urdhva tandava form of Nataraja housed in the temple at Tiruvalangadu, and the ananda tandava
form, a treasure trove unearthed at Tiruvalangadu, now preserved in the Government Museum,
Madras.
**We recall that two subshrines with these selfsame names exist at the Panchanadisvarar
temple at Tiruvaiyaru also. The Vada Kailasam there is a creation of Logamahadevi, a queen
of Rajaraja I, and the Ten Kailasam, of Rajendra I. These twin shrines appear to have pro-
vided the prototype for their counterparts here. It is noteworthy, however, that at Tiruvaiyaru
they have remained as Siva shrines.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I*S TIME
253
Ardhanari and Bhairavar in the north. At the entrance from the
mahamandapa to the ardhamandapa, there is a pair of dvarapalas ,
and, facing them, on the west wall of the mahamandapa, are
images of Sarasvati to the north and Gajalakshmi to the south.
The mahamandapa of the Ten Kailasam has collapsed ; and the
niche figures in the garbhagriha and ardhamandapa walls are the
same as in the two shrines above, except that the northern
garbhagriha niche here is empty. The sanctum is empty, and in
ruins.
(C) There is a small shrine for Ganapati to the south-west of the
main shrine. It is perhaps a later structure.
(D) To the south-east of the palace remains, there is a small
shrine housing Ayyanar and His Consorts, Purna and Pushkala.
The image of the main deity is a beautiful piece of sculpture
and of the same quality as the sculptures of the main temple.
( E ) The Vishnu temple, about 1.5 kms to the west of the main
temple, is associated with the lives of the Vaishnava saints Nada-
muni, who breathed his last here, and his grandson Alavandar,
who, failing to reach the place in time to see his grandfather alive,
built a memorial temple at the spot where the latter died. Local
tradition has it that this memorial temple is the Vishnu temple
here called the Kurugai Kavalappar (corrupted into Kuruvalap-
par) temple. The main deity is called Viranarayanap-Perumal.
(. F ) To the north-east of the main shrine and close to the lion-well
is the Mahishasuramardini shrine, a later structure. The main
deity has the characteristics of a Chalukyan piece and was prob-
ably brought here as a war trophy.
CHALUKYAN AND KALINGAN SCULPTURES
In addition to the Saura pitha and the Mahishasuramardini
images above, there are a few images which may be taken to be
of Chalukyan origin, judging from the general treatment, features
and disposition of weapons (if any) : the Durga image found in
254
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
the Vira Reddi street here; the four-armed image of Ganapati
called Kanakkup-Pillaiyar installed in a small shrine a few
hundred metres to the south-west of the big temple ; and possibly
the sculptures of Surya and an eight-armed Durga, installed near
the Saura pitha.
The Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu Government,
recently unearthed from a mound called Kalaichanga medu,
close to the village of Meykavalputtur and about 2 kms east of
the main temple, some sculptures of Kalingan origin. One is
of Kali or Durga*, eight-armed and seated on a pedestal. There
are three red-stone sculptures typical of Kalingan art of the ninth
and tenth centuries a.d., namely, a standing Bhairavar, a frag-
mentary Bhairavar with only the upper portion intact, and a
Bhairavi. These were presumably brought as trophies of the
Gangetic campaign in the days of Rajendra I.
THE CHOLAGANGAM LAKE
To consider briefly the lake now called Ponneri. It was
brought into being by Rajendra I as a “water pillar of victory”
{jalamayam ana jay astambham) and named Cholagangam, accord-
ing to the Tiruvalangadu Plates of his. It has a bund of consi-
derable height and a length of more than 5 kms. At full water-
level, it has a water spread of nearly 130 sq. kms. It once had a
surplus weir, and input channels from the Kollidam river and
other sources, and must have been connected to the palace-moat.
It has been allowed to go to seed, and a road now cuts through
the bund in the middle, dividing the lake into two parts.
Inscriptions:
A surprising feature of this temple is the total absence of any
inscriptions here of the (days of the) founder, Rajendra I. (It is
likely that he had intended to set up ultimately a comprehensive
*Durga images are usually found enshrined in the four cardinal directions in the periphery
of a city, protecting it from evil. At Gangaikondasolapuram, such images have been found at
Palli Odai in the north, at Meykavalputtur in the east (a majestic seven-foot figure) and on the
Vira Reddi street in the south (the Chalukyan image already mentioned). An image was found
in the west, on the bund of the great lake, and recently re-located close to the palace remains.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
255
record giving the foundation details and the list of endowments
made to the temple by himself and others, following the example
of his illustrious father in respect of the Tanjavur temple who
set up such a record in the last year of his life; but, as we know,
death came to Rajendra I at Brahmadesam, far from his capital.
His two immediate successors also did not apparently find the
time to record his endowments or theirs. Whatever be the
causes, the earliest, and incidentally the longest, inscription in the
temple is of the reign of Vira Rajendra (ARE 82 of 1892; SII,
IV, 529). Running to 216 lines, it records in fact a compendium
of six different orders, issued over the years by Rajendra I and
his sons : the earliest order is of the twenty-third regnal year of
Rajendra I (a.d. 1035), followed by two of Rajadhiraja I of his
twenty-sixth and thirtieth regnal years (a.d. 1044 and 1048). For
the most part, the contents of this inscription form a repetition of
the foundation inscription of Rajaraja I at the Tanjavur temple,
and appear to transfer in effect to the (local) temple most of the
benefactions made to the Tanjavur temple by Rajaraja I. The
first mention of the name of Gangaikonda-cholisvaram for the
temple is to be found in this inscription. Vira Rajendra refers to
his father as the conqueror of Purvadesam, Ganga (region) and
Kadaram ( Purvadesamum , Gangaiyum, Kadaramum kondarulina
Ayyar ), to Rajadhiraja I as the victor at Kalyanapuram and
Kollapuram who died on the back of an elephant as a hero in the
battlefield ( Kalyanapuramum Kollapuramum kondu anai mel tunjina
Annal ), and goes on to narrate his own victories (against the
Western Ghalukyas and in the reconquest of Vengi). The in-
scription tells us that altogether 340 kalanjus of gold and 1,10,000
kalams of paddy were to be given to the temple treasury annually
by various villages named in it (with precise details of the indivi-
dual contributions to be made).
An inscription which has suffered fragmentation apparently
due to a later shoddy reconstruction of the steps and the landing
is of the forty-first year of Kulottunga I ; it is the record of a
Gahadavala king, with whose dynasty the Cholas, particularly
in the days of Kulottunga I, kept up close contacts. It gives the
Gahadavala prasasti almost completely, but stops short of the
256
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
name of the king and the purpose of the inscription. The Gaha-
davalas were great patrons of Sun worship and their influence
maybe read into the setting up, during the reign of Kulottunga I,
of the only known Sun temple in the Chola country, at Suryanar-
Koyil.
We have a few fragmentary inscriptions of Kulottunga III
(by the side of the flight of steps leading to the mahamandapa
entrance), referring to his victories over the Pandyas, Sri Lanka
and Karuvur and to the erection of a commemorative pillar
of victory.
There are four Pandyan inscriptions. One is of the second year
of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya, who proved to be the nemesis
of the Cholas ; it records the institution by him of a daily service
in the temple in his name, called the Sundara Pandyan sandhi
and the grant of lands for the purpose. An inscription of the sixth
year of his brother Vikrama Pandya records the establishment
by him of a service in his name called the Rajakkal Nayan
sandhi and the grant of 20 velis of land for the purpose. The other
two are of the fourth and fifth years of Maravarman Kulasekhara
(the latter an incomplete one).*
UTTATTUR (URRATTUR)
SIDDHARATNESVARAR (TOGUMAMANI NAYANAR)
57 TEMPLE
Uttattur, whose ancient name was Urrattur, is about 3.20 kms
(2 miles) to the south-east of Padalur, which is 34 kms (21 miles)
from Tiruchy on the Tiruchy-Madras trunk road. It has an
Early Chola temple, whose deity is now called Siddharatnesvarar,
but was known in olden days by the name of Togumamani
Nayanar; in spite of its antiquity, it is not one of those temples
celebrated in song by the Nayanmars; Appar has, however,
mentioned this temple in his Kshetrak Kovai (stanza 10) and Adaivut-
tirut-tandagam as one of the celebrated Siva temples of his time.
♦An authentic guide-book on this temple is published by R. Nagaswaniy, Director of
Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
257
The temple comprises the main shrine locally called Andavar
temple, a yaga-mandapa, a hall known as the Uttamasolan mandapa ,
and two gopuras. To the north of the main shrine is the Amman
shrine dedicated to Akhilandesvari.
The presiding deity has undergone considerable changes in
its name: starting off as the Mahadevar of Urrattur in the days
of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, it is called Urrattur Peruman-
adigal in the days of Rajadhiraja I; Togumamani Andar, in the
days of the Later Cholas beginning with Vikrama Chola; Togu-
mamani Nayakar or Nayanar in the days of Rajadhiraja II and
for over two centuries thereafter; and finally, Tuyya Mamani
Nayanar in the days of Achyuta Raya of the Vijayanagara rulers.
The temple abounds in inscriptions. On the west side of the
base of the yaga-mandapa, there is an incomplete record of the
24th year of Rajaraja I: all that we can gather from it is the
association of a Muttaraiyar with the temple (ARE 514 of 1912).
The next record belongs to the third year of Rajendra I and is of
some historical importance. It refers to a gift made to the Maha-
devar at Urrattur for the merit of one Srutiman Nakkan Chandiran
alias Rajamalla Muttaraiyan of the elephant corps who met
with a hero’s death while carrying out the orders of the king to
pierce the enemy’s elephant, in the battle of Hottur (a.d. 1007:
Fleet, Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts, p. 433) fought between
Rajendra I and the Western Chalukya ruler Irivabedanga
Satyasraya (ARE 515 of 1912).
Again on the west side of the base of the yaga-mandapa, there
are two inscriptions of the days of Rajadhiraja I. One, of his
twenty-eighth year, refers to a sale of land to the temple of
Urrattur Peruman-adigal (ARE 513 of 1912). The other is
incomplete and its date unknown; it records the gift of a lamp
to the Mahadevar of Urrattur for the merit of a woman residing
at Tirani (ARE 516 of 1912).
There are no inscriptions relating to the reigns of his successors
till the days of Vikrama Chola.
The temple faces east. The oldest parts of the temple are the
garbhagriha and the ardhamandapa ; the former is a square of side
2.44 ms (8'), and the ardhamandapa projects 1.88 ms (6') forward
258
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
from it. Ahead of the ardhamandapa is the snapana mandapa , in one
corner of which the old Nandi of the temple is kept; it is reached
from the north or the south by a small flight of steps. The garbha-
griha has three devakoshtas containing Dakshinamurti in the
south, Vishnu in the west and Brahma in the north; the two
ardhamandapa niches also contain the usual figures: Ganapati
in the south and Durga in the north.
The griva, sikhara and stupi are modern. The Later Chola
gopuram at the entrance to the temple is seven-storeyed and well-
preserved; it was in existence even by the days of Kulottunga II.
The temple must have been a foundation of the days of
Aditya I and has a continuous history of royal benefactions till
well into the Vijayanagara days. Though it is an utterly neglected
one today, it had played a significant role in the history of the
region over the centuries : a longstanding dispute between certain
communities in this region was settled at a meeting in the local
Uttamasolan mandapa and the rights of the so-called Idangai
community were finalised and recorded in an inscription, in
the fortieth year of Kulottunga III (ARE 489 of 1912).
The Amman shrine* has an unusual and unique set of deva-
koshta figures, namely, the three Saktis : Jnana, Ichcha and Kriya,
and besides Durga and Brahmi (Pis 232 to 247).
The Cholisvaram temple :
In the outskirts of the village, atop a low hillock, there is a
dilapidated Later Chola temple. There are two inscriptions on
*The Akhilandesvari shrine: Alongside and to the north of the main shrine is the Amman
shrine, the two having a common wall of enclosure. The Amman shrine has a foundation in-
scription on the south side of its base, and records the consecration of the presiding deity by one
Umai Alvi alias Sivakamasundari Manikkam, one of the dancing girls of the temple of Togu-
mamani Nayanar (the main shrine); the date of this record is not available. However, there is
another (incomplete) record found in the same location, of the days of Kulottunga III, referring
to a gift to a Siva-brahmana attached to the Amman shrine; the date is lost (ARE 505 and 504
of 1912). On the west wall of the first prakara, there is a record of the sixteenth year of Kulot-
tunga III, relating to an exchange of land given to a dancing girl of the temple of Togumamani
Nayanar of Urrattur for the maintenance of a shrine for Umai Isvaram udaiya Nayanar which
she had constructed in one of the devadana villages (ARE 503 of 1912). If we hazard the
reasonable conjecture that the last-mentioned shrine was built by the same girl Umai Alvi, as
the name of that shrine would indicate, then the Akhilandesvari shrine may be concluded to
have come into existence about the same time, namely, early in the reign of Kulottunga III.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
259
the south wall of the temple, one on either side of the entrance.
One is of the thirteenth year, 194th day of Kulottunga II (a.d.
1146-47), and records that the temple (of Cholisvaram) was
built by a certain Vana Vichchadira Nadalvan, a younger brother
of Brahmadaraya Muttaraiyar, and that the income from the vil-
lage of Siruvalaippur in Kannak-Kiliyur nadu was assigned to that
temple (ARE 531 of 1912). The other is of the fourth year, 226th
day of Rajaraja II (a.d. 1 150-51), and records that the village
of Ulattambadi in the same nadu was gifted as a devadana to the
temple of Kulottungasola Isvaram Udaiyar of Urrattur; the
grant is recorded and attested by the royal secretary ( tiru mandira
olai) named Rajasraya Pallavaraiyan (ARE 530 of 1912).
This temple is thus a foundation of the days of Kulottunga II
(Anapaya) and was named after him. It is now in utter ruins,
and urgent steps are needed to conserve what is left of it.
TIRUPPATTUR (TIRUPPID AVUR)
TIRUMANDAPAM UDAIYA NAYANAR (AYYANAR)
TEMPLE 58
The village of Tiruppattur (to be distinguished from its
better-known namesakes in the North Arcot and Ramanatha-
puram districts) is about 30.50 kms (19 miles) from the town of
Tiruchy and 5 kms (3 miles) from Siruganur to the left of the
trunk road from Tiruchy to Madras. It is referred to as Tirup-
Pidavur in ancient Tamil literature and in local inscriptions.
There are a number of temples in this locality: (1) The Kailasa-
nathar temple; (2) The Tirumandapam udaiya Nayanar (Ayya-
nar) temple; (3) The Purushottama Emperumanar (Vishnu)
temple; (4) The Brahmapurisvarar temple; and (5) The Kasi
Visvanathar temple. The following temples are mentioned in
inscriptions to have existed in the locality: the Siva temple of
Tiru-Veppan-terri udaiya Nayanar; the Anbichchuram udaiya
Nayanar temple; and the temple of Subrahmanyar (or Kunram-
erinda) Pillaiyar.
The Kailasanathar temple, built of stone, seems to have been
260
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
erected in the 8th century a.d., between the reigns of Rajasimha
alias Narasimhavarman II and Nandivarman II, and bears a
close resemblance to its namesake at Kanchipuram in style and
features except for the absence here of the Somaskandar panel
in the rear wall of the garbhagriha.
Next to the above temple is the Ayyanar temple called in
inscriptions that of Tirumandapam udaiya Nayanar. We shall
revert to this important temple below. It seems probable that the
Siva temple (shrine) called that of Tiru-Veppan-terri udaiya
Nayanar in local inscriptions, was located on a platform in the
prakara of this temple. The other two temples, of Anbichchuram
udaiya Nayanar and Subrahmanya Pillaiyar, mentioned in
inscriptions, are not traceable.
The Brahmapurisvarar temple is a big one of the Middle
Chola period. We are, however, unable to trace its evolution in
time because of the total absence of inscriptions on its walls.
Two interesting temple-cars with metal attachments are worthy
of notice here.
Half a mile (800 ms) north of the preceding temple, there
is a Vishnu temple, which must be that of Purushottama Em-
peruman referred to in an inscription of Jatavarman Vira Pandya
(of about a.d. 1277). It must have been an ancient Pallava
temple, reconstructed later. In the western prakara of this temple,
there is a huge stone image of Vishnu, 1.96 ms (6' 5") high and
0.79 m (2' 7") wide, of good workmanship and assignable to the
Pallava period.
To the far west of the village is a Siva temple called that of
Kasi Visvanathar. It is of the Later Chola or possibly Vijaya-
nagara period.
Historically, and especially from the point of view of Saiva
hagiology, the Ayyanar temple here is important. Appar mentions
the temple of Tiruppidavur in his Kshetra tiruttandagam. In the
last section of his Periyapuranam (twelfth century a.d.), called
the Vellanaich-charukkam (The canto of the white elephant), Sek-
kilar describes graphically the last journey, to Mount Kailasa,
of Sundarar and Cheraman Perumal. When the former, seated
on the white elephant sent by Lord Siva, set off for Kailasa, the
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
26 l
latter got on to a horse and merely whispered the Siva-mantra
( panchaksharam ) into its ears, to find himself in Kailasa even ahead
of Sundarar. Both of them were blessed with a vision of Siva
with His Consort in Kailasa, well-adorned and attended by
Brahma, Vishnu, Kama and Rati, Murugan, Vinayaka, Kari
(Ayyanar), the devas, vidyadharas , yakshas, kvnnaras, nagas, dvara-
palas, dikpalas, dik-gajas and others. This divine “procession”
is described by Cheraman Perumal in his swan-song called the
Tiruk Kailaya Jnana Ula ; this is the first instance of this form of
Tamil poetry and is hence also called the Adi Ula. This Ula
of Cheraman Perumal is held by tradition to have been expounded
by Varuna to Siva’s devotees at Tiruvanjaikkalam (Mahodai or
Kodungolur, modern Cranganore), the home-town of Cheraman
Perumal, and by Sattanar (Ayyanar) in the temple at Tirup-
pidavur.
The inscriptional name of Tirumandapam udaiya Nayanar
temple for this temple would appear to be in commemoration
of this legendary final episode in the life of Cheraman Perumal.
An earlier version of the present stone mandapa in front of the
Ayyanar shrine must have existed from the days of Sundarar and
Cheraman Perumal (ninth century a.d.). The present shrine
and mandapa seem assignable to the Middle Chola period. The
earliest Chola inscriptions here are two, of the days of Rajendra I ;
one, of the second regnal year, is on the east wall of the mandapa,
and the other, of the sixth year, on the stone pedestal on which the
images of Ayyanar and His two Consorts are placed. The first
mentions that the residents of Tiruppidavur nadu and two other
nadus granted the lease of some fallow land to a servant of the
temple of Anbichchuram udaiya Nayanar at Tiruppidavur.
The second is fragmentary and mentions a gift by one Uttama-
sola Muvendavelan.
In the north-east corner of the prakara of the Ayyanar temple
and to the north of the (main) mandapa, there are a shrine and
a mandapa, both in ruins. On the pillars of the ruined mandapa
there are two inscriptions of the days of Rajadhiraja I. One
is fragmentary and contains only the historical introduction.
The other, of his thirty-first year, refers to a gift of cows for a lamp
262
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
to the temple of Pillaiyar Veppan-terri udaiyar at Tiruppidavur
(described as situated in Rajaraja valanadu) by a native of
Mec.hchumangalam, a hamlet of Perumpaluvur (Melappaluvur),
the headquarters of the Paluvettaraiyars. In this connection,
it may also be mentioned that an inscription of the sixth regnal
year of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (I?) found on the north
wall of the main mandapa records a gift of the income of two villages
to the temples of Tirumandapam udaiya Nayanar and Tiru
Veppan-terri udaiya Nayanar here; also the residents of Urrattur
Malavi nadu gave gifts for offerings and repairs to the temple
of Subrahmanya Pillaiyar in the same village (ARE 594 of
1908). The Veppan-terri udaiyar shrine might have been located
within the premises of the Ayyanar temple: could it have been
the shrine in ruins (in the prakara ) already referred to? The
Subrahmanyar temple is referred to as that of Kunram-erinda
Pillaiyar in a record of the fourth year of Rajaraja III (ARE
595 of 1908). There are several other Later Chola inscriptions
in this temple, as well as of the Hoysalas (Vira Ramanatha)
and of the Pandyas of the Second Empire.
As already stated, the main shrine is of stone and consists
of a garbhagriha, housing the images of Ayyanar and His two
Consorts (later additions?), and the mandapa in front. There is
a prakara with a few shrines in it, enclosed by a madil with a three-
storeyed gopuram built in the thirteenth century a.d. which
bears an inscription of its builder. There is a unique stone sculp-
ture of an elephant (the vahana of Ayyanar) in front of the temple.
The importance given to the mandapa , to the extent of naming
the deity after it (so to speak), is of interest. An analogous situa-
tion exists at Uttaramerur, where the big mandapa in the Vai-
kuntha Perumal temple apparently first served as the meeting
place of the mahasabha of the chaturvedimangalam (probably with
a Vishnu image as the presiding deity) and later on the present
Vishnu temple was erected adjoining it, in the days of Kulot-
tunga I.
As far as our knowledge goes, this is the only important
stone temple for Ayyanar, not to speak of the huge elephant
vehicle in stone sculpture in front of it. The Abhiramesvarar
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
263
temple at Ayyur-Agaram (in the vicinity of Villupuram, South
Arcot district) is, in spite of the name given to it, a Sasta temple.
The central deity is still Sasta, while in recent times a Linga has
been installed in the prakara, perhaps justifying the new name of
Abhiramesvarar (Pis 248 to 250).
MAHADANAPURAM
CHOLISVARAM TEMPLE 59
The village of Mahadanapuram is on the south bank of the
Kaveri, 54 kms west of Tiruchy on the Tiruchy-Karur road.
The Cholisvaram temple is located in the wilderness about three
kms from Mahadanapuram in a southerly direction. On the
south wall of the central shrine is an incomplete inscription of
the 5th year of Rajendra Ghola deva (II), from which we get the
fragmentary information that certain gifts were possibly made
for the worship of a deity called Rajendra Vitankar, presumably
a metallic processional image, set up in the temple of Sri Kaila-
sam Udaiyar alias Sri Madhurantaka Isvaram Udaiyar, located
in Cholakulamanikka chaturvedimangalam (Mahadanapuram)
of Adanur nadu in Abhimanajiva valanadu, a brahmadeyam
administered by a committee of elders called Perunguri perumak-
kal sabhai. An inscription in the same location of the fourth
year of Kulottunga I, relating to a gift of tax-free land to the
temple, also mentions the above two names for the temple (ARE
386 A and 386 of 1903: SII, VIII, 702 and 701). An inscription
of the fifth year of Rajaraja III, registering a land-gift by a
Hoysala military officer for the deity of Subrahmanya Pillaiyar
set up by a local Chief in the temple, also refers to the temple by
the name of Madhurantaka Cholisvaram Udaiyar koyil (ARE
387 of 1930: SII, VIII, 703).
From the fact that the earliest inscription here is of the days
of Rajendra II and that the temple has throughout been known
as Madhurantaka Cholisvaram, we may attribute the temple
to the days of Rajendra I (one of whose surnames was Madhu-
rantaka).
264 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
TIRU-NALLAR(U)
60 DARBHARANYESVARAR TEMPLE
TirunaUaru is a railway station situated on the Peralam-
Karaikkal branch line of the Southern Railway. It was formerly
a French settlement, now included in the Union Territory of
Pondicherry. It is situated on the southern bank of the Kaveri
and the river Arisil flows close by. Its other names are Adipuri,
Natesvaram and Nagavitankapuram (as one of the Sapta-Vitanka
temples) ; it is a celebrated centre of Saivism.
In modern times, Tirunallaru is famous as the home of
Sani-Bhagavan (Lord Saturn) and it attracts a large number
of pilgrims from all over the Tamil Nadu. It is sanctified by
its legendary association with Nala and its glorification by Sam-
bandar in his historical encounters with Jainism at Madurai in
the court of Kun Pandyan who became Ninra Seer Nedumaran.
The three Tamil saints have sung the glory of this Lord.
Sambandar:
This Saiva saint has four hymns on the Lord of Tiru-
Nallaru. There are two hymns which seem to have been sung
during his visit to this place from Dharmapuram accompanied
by Tiru Nilakantha Yalpanar, the first hymn beginning with
Bhogamartha. In a disputation over the merit of his hymns with
the Jainas, held in the court of the Pandyan king, the palm leaf
containing this hymn was thrown into the fire, in the test by
fire-ordeal; and since it remained unconsumed, it acquired the
name of Pachchaip-padigam (the hymn that was unburnt). In
this hymn, the Lord of Tirunallaru is described as Ardhanaris-
varar, the master of the Rishabha mount, with the attributes
of the deer, the axe, the snake, the trident, the jata, the crescent,
the Ganga and the Rishabha flag, the dancer in the cremation
ground, the overthrower of the Tripura asuras , the poison-
throated, the one inaccessible to Brahma and Vishnu, the wan-
dering mendicant with a skull for his bowl and the suppressor
of the heretical Buddhists and Jainas. After this victorious contest
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
265
with the Jainas, Sambandar has sung another hymn in which
he glorifies together (both) the Lord of Tirunallaru and Sun-
daresvarar, the Lord of Kudal Tiruvalavay, i.e. Madurai. This
will prove the celebrity obtained by Tirunallaru in Saivite
hagiology in the Tamil land.
In another hymn, there is a vivid description of the natural
beauty of the temple campus, as full of trees, flowering plants
and rice fields, where the Lord was worshipped by the Nagas,
Vidyadharas, Devas and the brahmanas well-versed in the Vedas
and the Vedangas and in the practice of sacrifices, and whose
Lord was the saviour of Markandeya from Yama.
Special mention is made of the devotion and salvation of
the Puranic Nala maharaja who is said to have got rid of his
mortal ailments after he worshipped and gained the grace of
Saturn and Darbharanyesvarar in this temple (stanza 3 — Nalan
keluvi nalum valipadu-sey Nallarey) .
Appar:
Appar has sung two hymns concerning Tirunallaru. In
one hymn he proclaims that one who utters once the name
of the Lord of Tirunallaru will have all his sins washed away.
In addition to Siva’s usual attributes, He is described as the
destroyer of Gajasura, the Lord worshipped by Vishnu (Naranan)
perhaps for the gift of the chakra, the destroyer of the Tripura
asuras and of Yama, the one who assumed the role of the hunter
(kirata) to help Arjuna, the one who asserted and established
his supremacy over Vishnu and Brahma (Lingodbhavar) and
the one who humbled the pride of Ravana.
Appar’s other hymn is in the Tiruttandagam, in which he
describes Siva as the one who cut off the fifth head of Brahma,
the one who gave the Pasupata-ajfi-a to Arjuna, the destroyer
of Manmatha, the bearer of khadvanga and the wearer of the
garland of skulls, the Lord of the Rishabha mount, Kankaladevar
carrying the bones of Brahma and Vishnu, the bestower of grace
on the devotee spider (Jambunatha temple) and the Lord of the
hill of Tiruchy, the remover of the evil influences of the planets
and the destroyer of Daksha.
266
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Incidentally, other important Saiva temples mentioned in
these hymns are those of Tiruppainjili, Tiruppurambiyam, Tirup-
pugalur, Tiruvalisvaram and Vedaranyam (Tirumaraikkadu).
Sundaramurti :
The Saint Sundaramurti in his hymn mentions how the Lord
of Tiruvennainallur won him over to a new life of divine service
even in the course of the celebration of his wedding. He also
mentions how Siva, his Friend, saved him as his love messenger.
The central shrine at Tirunallaru is dedicated to Darbharan-
yesvarar. The antiquity of the temple itself is brought out by
its association with the Puranic king Nala who, long pestered
by Saturn, found his radical cure by his devotion to the deity
of Saturn in this temple, which is situated in a cella on the right
of the inner gateway without a spire. There is also a tank in
front named after Nala, and held sacred by devotees. As all the
three Tamil Nayanmars have celebrated the Lord of this temple
in their hymns, its existence as early as the seventh century
a.d. is definite; but the present stone structure has to be ascribed
to the Middle Chola period. Tirunallaru is said to have been
a brahmadeyam situated in Mulaiyur nadu in Uyyakkondan vala-
nadu, and in the days of Rajaraja I came to be renamed Cholen-
drasimha chaturvedimangalam, after a title of his. The earliest
inscription is of Rajadhiraja I, which incidentally refers to
gifts by his illustrious father Rajendra I. By the 34th regnal
year of Rajadhiraja I, Uyyakkondan valanadu was renamed
J ayangondasola valanadu after a surname of the ruler (ARE
437 °f 1 965-66) and in an inscription of Rajendra deva II it
is called Adhirajendra valanadu (ARE 440 of 1965-66).*
*In the 34th year of the reign of Rajadhiraja I, an interesting reference is made to the arrange-
ments for enacting a drama (aryakkuttu) in five acts ( angams ) during certain festivals in the temple.
Certain actors headed by Srikanthan Kamban ( alias Abhimanameru Natakap-Peraraiyan),
among whom were the sons of Srikanthan Arangan, who were already in the enjoyment of the
right of ariyakkuttu in the temple, were given tax-free land as gift for enacting the five-act drama
on the occasions of Masi-Makham and Vaikasi Visakham festivals in the temple of Tirunallar
Udaiyar of Tirunallaru ; the gift included a provision of 20 kalams of paddy as tiruvilakkorru to the
same donees and their troupe for their make-up at the rate of one nali of oil for the face and one
rnli of rice for the face-power for each anga (act). Cf. the provision made to a Santi-KutUm for
enacting the drama of Rajarajesvara-Natakam in the Tanjavur temple (SII, II, pp.306-7).
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
267
In the Later Chola period, in the days of Kulottunga I and
Vikrama Chola, Tirunallaru is described as Virudarajabhayan-
kara chaturvedimangalam, a brakmadeyam in Mulaiyur nadu,
situated in Rajanarayana valanadu, perhaps named after a
title of Kulottunga I (ARE 459 and 442 of 1965-66). The latest
inscriptions belong to two Pandyan rulers of the first quarter
of the fourteenth century (Pis 251 and 252).
Thy agar aja shrine:
The temple of Tirunallaru has three prakaras; the outermost
has a gopuram of five storeys. North-west of the middle wall of
enclosure, there is a shrine of Thyagaraja; it seems to be a Later
Chola structure, as we find on its walls inscriptions only of the
later Pallava king Kopperunjinga and of Rajendra III, the last
member of the Chola line.
Nala-Narayanap-Perumal Koyil :
North-west of the Siva temple is the shrine now called that of
Nala-Narayanap-Perumal. From a third year inscription assigned
by the Government Epigraphist to Rajendra II, we learn of
the existence of a temple called the Rajendrasola Vinnagar
where a meeting of the mahasabha of Arumolideva chaturvedi-
mangalam took place, in the course of which the sabha received
80 kasus from the temple of Mahadevar of Tirunallaru (ARE
440 of 1965-66). Similarly, in a record dated in a.d. 1126,
there is a reference to a temple by the name of Kulottungasola
Vinnagar, in whose premises the sabhaiyar of Virudarajabhayan-
kara chaturvedimangalam met and sold land for mid-day
offerings (ARE 448 of 1965-66, found on the south wall of the
mandapa) . Is the present Vishnu temple the same as the Rajendra-
sola Vinnagar (ARE 440 of 1965-66) and the Kulottungasola
vinnagar (Vikrama Chola, ARE 448 061965-66)?
TIRUMALAVADI
VAIDYANATHASWAMI TEMPLE 61
Tirumalavadi lies on the north bank of the river Kollidam
268
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(the Coleroon) opposite Tiruvaiyaru. It is 18 kilometres from
Pullampadi, which lies on the Tiruchy-Ariyalur road. This
village was a settlement of Malavars and hence acquired its
name. The main temple of the village is dedicated to Vaidya-
nathasvami. In the inscriptions the deity of this temple was called
the Mahadevar of Tirumaluvadi and the village was called
Tirumaluvadi. It has a long and continuous history, with which
we have briefly dealt in the Early Chola Art, Part I (pp. 131-2).
This temple as it originally stood dates back to the days of
Aditya I and has associations with the Rashtrakuta king Krishna
II and later on with Parantaka I and Sundara Chola.
On the south wall of the central shrine as it stands to-day
there is a record of the twenty-eighth year, thirty-ninth day
of Rajaraja I which mentions that the king ordered that the
srivimana of the temple be pulled down and a new srivimana built.
In this record, the village is described as a devadana, in
Poygai nadu, a sub-division of Vadagarai Rajendrasimha
valanadu. The order further observed that all the inscriptions
on the walls of the srivimana should, before it was dismantled,
be transcribed in the books with a view to re-inscribing them
on the walls of the new structure. The record reads as follows:
“ Tirumagal pola kovirajarajakesaripanmarana Udaiyar
Sri Rajarajadevarkku yandu 28-avadu nal SQ-nal Vadagarai
Rajendrasimha Valanattu, Poygai nattu devadanam Tirumaluvadi
Udaiyar sri vimanam vaangi tirukkarrali yedukka venru Udaiyar
Sri Rajarajadevar arulichcheya tirukkarrali eduttu sri vimanam vaangi i
srivimanattulla kalvettupadi pottagattil sorpikka venru adhikarigal
Irumudisola Muvendavelar Niyogamum Mummudisola Brahmadhirayar
Niyogamum . ...” (SII, V, 652; ARE 92 of 1895).
From another record relating to the fourteenth year,
seventieth day of Rajendra I found on the same wall (ARE 91
of 1895), we get to know that these inscriptions were re-inscribed
on the walls of the new srivimana, which would mean that the
reconstruction was completed latest by that year. The inscription
mentions that the order ( olai ) to re-inscribe was conveyed by
Narakkan Raman Arumoli Uttamachola Brahmamarayan, the
Dandanayaka who belonged to the brahmadeyam of Keralantaka-
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
269
chaturvedimangalam in Vennadu in Uyyakkondan valanadu, to
Kulavan Solan, who was in charge of the temple ( srikaryam
seykinra ), Pichchan, the Devakanmis of the temple, the Sabha of
Sri-Gandaraditta chaturvedimangalam and the Sabha of Perum-
puliyur; and the record further says that the earlier inscriptions
were re-inscribed according to the books (“ kalvettu vidippadi munbu
kalvettu sortta pottagappadi” — SII, V, 651; ARE 91 of 1895).
Such was the care and regard for past charitable endowments
and such was the historical sense displayed by the Chola rulers.
The temple of Aditya I’s days should have been reconstructed
between a.d. 1013 and 1026. Unfortunately the structure has
undergone further renovation at a later date with the result
that some of the features of the Rajaraja I and Rajendra I’s
days have been lost.
RAMANATHANKOYIL
SIVA (MAHADEVAR) TEMPLE
(PANCHAVAN MADEVI ISVARAM) 62
The hamlet of Ramanathankoyil is about 2 kms south-west
of the village of Pattisvaram and falls within the revenue juris-
diction of that village. The local name for the site where the
temple of Mahadevar is located is kolait-tidal. Pattisvaram, Rama-
nathankoyil, Palaiyarai, Tiruchchattimurram and Darasuram
were important Chola centres lying close to one another, having
formed an integral part of the ancient secondary Chola capital
of Palaiyarai (now called Palaiyaru). In this capital, many a
Chola monarch got himself anointed. Today, the village of
Palaiyarai is an insignificant place, with no remnants of its
past glory. It is referred to in a record of Kundavai Pirattiyar
(ARE 639 of 1909) as the royal home of her nephew Rajendra I.
We learn from another record, of an order issued from the
palace here by the king (ARE 463 of 1908). Intimately asso-
ciated with the Cholas as it was, it now contains no inscriptions
of theirs; the only record found there (ARE 254 of 1927) states
that the big mandapa and the sopana (flight of steps) in the
270
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Somanathadevar temple there were constructed by Vanadarayan
Narasingadevan of Poruvanur in Saka 1375 (a.d. 1453). The
village of Pattisvaram is within five kms due north-west of
Palaiyaru, and that of Ramanathankoyil is close to the latter.
There is a Siva (Mahadevar) temple at Ramanathankoyil with
a dilapidated, three-storeyed gopuram in front. The temple faces
east. On either side of the entrance to the central shrine, there
is a fine dvarapala sculpture. The south wall of the central shrine
contains fine sculptures of Bhikshatanar, Ganesa, and Dakshi-
namurti; Brahma, Durga, Ardhanari and Gangadharar are on
the north wall, and Lingodbhavar is in the west . There are
loose sculptures of Chandesvarar, Bhairavar and Chandrasekharar
lying in the mandapa. The lingam in the sanctum is fluted, reminiscent
of the Pallava Rajasimha tradition.
An inscription of the seventh year of Rajendra I (ARE 271 of
1927) found here, mentions a gift of land for worship and
offerings, by the king and a queen of his ( Nambirattiyar ) made
to “the Mahadevar of Panchavan Mahadevi Isvaram, built
as a pallippadai at Palaiyaru alias Mudikonda Cholapuram”:
provision is made for offerings on the days of Tiruvadirai, the
natal star of Rajendra I, and Revati, stated there to be that of the
(unnamed) queen.
During the Middle Chola period, two Chola queens bore
the name Panchavan Mahadevi (Madevi) : one of them was
a queen of Rajaraja I, and the other of Rajendra I. Parakesari
Uttama Chola also had a queen of that name (ARE 491 of 1925).
While Rajendra I’s queen of that name finds mention in only
one record (ARE 464 of 1918), Rajaraja I’s queen is associated
with several acts of piety, extending in time over practically
the whole reign of Rajaraja I. Thus, an inscription of the
third year of Rajaraja I at Tirumalpuram describes her as
“Chola Mahadevi alias Panchavan Mahadeviyar, queen of
Mummudi Chola” and mentions that she made a gift of a lamp
to the local temple (ARE 294 of 1906). In the ninth regnal year
of Rajaraja I, a servant of hers made a gift of an ornament to
Uma-Bhattaraki at Tiruvidaimarudur (ARE 278 of 1907).
In the tenth year of Rajaraja I, this queen set up a gold image
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
271
of Uma-sahita at Tiruvidaimarudur (ARE 254 of 1907). An
inscription of his 16th year at Tiruppugalur mentions a tax-free
gift of land by “Nakkan Tillai Alagiyar alias Panchavan Mahade-
viyar, queen of Rajaraja I” for festivals and offerings on the day
of Sadaiyam every month, this star being both the king’s and
her own natal star (ARE 47 of 1928). An inscription of his
2 1 st year at the same place mentions that the assembly of Karo-
duchcheri received 15 kasus and granted remission of taxes on
lands granted to the temple by the king and this queen for
special worship on the day of Sadaiyam every month (ARE 54
of 1928). Again, an inscription of his 23rd year at the same
place mentions that a servant of this queen’s presented nine
flowers of gold to Konapiran, the lord of Tiruppugalur (ARE
62 of 1928). Finally, from an inscription of the 27th year of
Rajaraja I at Melappaluvur (ARE 385 of 1924), we learn that
Nakkan Panchavan Mahadevi was the daughter of Avani-
Kandarppa-purathu-devanar of Paluvur, and that, at her request,
the king provided for offerings and worship in the local temple
by granting an additional income of 900 kalams of paddy (de-
rived from an enhancement of rents) following a re-survey
and re-assessment of lands.
In the Rajarajesvaram temple, she set up two images (as
already seen), namely of (1) Tanjai Alagar (Siva dancing on
Muyalakan) with Uma Paramesvari and Ganapati, and (2)
Patanjali-devar with five hoods mounted on a single crowned
head, two arms, a human body above the waist and three coils
below it. She also made a large number of gifts to both of them
(SII, II, 51 and 53).*
In view of the many acts of devotion attributed to Queen
Panchavan Madevi of Rajaraja I, it is highly probable that
the pallippadai was erected over her mortal remains (though
Uttama Chola and Rajendra I had queens of the same name).
Though there is no foundation inscription revealing its date
*As already seen in our chapter on Rajaraja I, section on gifts of icons to Rajarajesvaram
by his queens, if indeed Panchavan Mahadevi and Chola Mahadevi were one and the same
person, then this list of benefactions is further enhanced.
272 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
or builder, it is likely that it was erected by Rajendra I himself
in homage to the saintly character of his step-mother.
In any event, this temple is unique as the only pallippadai
known to be erected in honour of a queen. The ARE for 1926-27
states that “some interested hand has attempted to erase the
word pallippadai ; nevertheless, the word can be clearly traced
in the inscription”. We have already seen {Early Chola Temples ,
pp 215-7) that Rajaraja I built a sepulchral temple over the
mortal remains of his grandfather Arinjaya at Melpadi, calling
it Arinjigai Isvaram.
The above inscription of Rajendra I’s found on the north,
west and south sections of the garbhagriha and ardhamandapa
walls, also makes mention of the mathadhipati Lakulisvara Pandita
who supervised the affairs of the temple in collaboration with
“Venkatan Kovandai of Maruthur in Serrur kurram, a division
of Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu”. We will see, when discussing
Tiruvorriyur, the hold which the Lakulisa and Soma Siddhanta
cults had over the Cholas in general, and over Rajendra I in
particular (Pis 253 to 261).
TIRUVAIYARU
TEN KAIL AS AM UDAIYAR
63 (DAKSHINA KAIL AS AM) TEMPLE
In my Early Chola Art Part I, I have dealt with the Pancha-
nadisvarar temple and its art and architectural features (pp. 149-
152). In the campus of this big temple there are a number of
smaller temples or shrines among which the more important
are Uttara Kailasam, Dakshina Kailasam and Dharmambika
shrines. Uttara Kailasam (or Vada Kailasam) temple has been
dealt with in the chapter on Rajaraja I’s temples.
The shrine of Ten Kailasam is in the southern outer prakara
of the Panchanadisvarar temple. It is associated with the life of
the Tamil saint Appar of the seventh century a.d. He is said to
have been tirelessly wending his way to the north to reach
Kailasa. Even after losing his legs in the strenuous journey,
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
273
he struggled on to reach his goal. Siva was pleased with his
devotion and desired to reward his labours. He ordered the
saint to bathe in the nearby tank and promised him divine
grace after he emerged from the holy tank at Tiruvaiyaru. The
miracle happened. Appar, rising from the holy tank, saw the
beatific vision of Siva and Parvati; and the saint poured forth
a hymn of ecstasy on seeing “the divine vision that no mortal
eyes had seen before” ( kandariyadana kanden ). Ever since this
episode, there has existed this shrine of Ten Kailasam at Tiru-
vaiyaru. {See Four Chola Temples).
It was this celebrated shrine that was rebuilt of stone in the
days of Rajendra I. It bears on its east wall an inscription men-
tioning his full regnal title and name as given in his copper
plate grants. It reads thus:
Svasti Sri: Raj ad raj any a makuta sreni ratneshu sasanam
Etad Rajendra Cholasya Parakesarivarmanah” .
An undated inscription of the same ruler found on the
eastern base records in detail the various ornaments given to
the temple (ARE 148 of 1918). A detailed record found on
the east wall relates to Rajendra II and enumerates the list
of ornaments gifted to Adavallar by a servant of Nampirattiyar
Trailokyam Udaiyar, a queen of Rajendra II (ARE 213 of
1894, SII, V, 512).
The shrine consists of a garbhagriha, an ardhamandapa and a
mukhamandapa. The peristyle round this main shrine is supported
by 44 Nolamba pillars brought here perhaps as trophies of
war from Hemavati, the Nolamba capital, by king Rajendra I,
to beautify his temple. Some important sculptures on the walls
of this shrine are Subrahmanyar, Durga and Brahma, all be-
longing to the age of Rajendra I (Pis 262 to 265).
TIRUVARUR
THYAGARAJASVAMIN TEMPLE 64
In my Early Chola Temples (a.d. 907-985), I have dealt with
274 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the importance of Tiruvarur as a cultural and religious centre
of South India during the period of the early Cholas (pp. 192-7).
In particular we have dealt with the Achalesvarar shrine (other-
wise called Tiru-Ara-Neri-Alvar temple) in detail. Briefly, this
shrine was a foundation of Sembiyan Mahadevi, the generous
royal benefactress, who built numerous temples during her long
and dedicated life of piety.
The heart of the township is occupied by the expansive
campus of the Thyagarajasvamin temple and the sacred tank of
Kamalalaya to its west. A brief description is given of the
temple complex which occupies an area of about twenty acres.
The core of the temple consists of the twin shrines of Valmiki-
nathar and Thyagaraja. There are three prakaras and including
the area of habitation of the temple servants and the local re-
sidents, five prakaras. The Valmikinathar shrine is the hub of
the entire complex and the gateways on the inner, middle and
outer prakaras on the eastern side are along the axis of this
shrine. Besides, it is also the most ancient shrine. The Thyaga-
raja shrine lies parallel to the former and to its south.
These two shrines, independent of each other otherwise, share
a common mahamandapa. Obviously as a result of the addition
of this shrine at a later date, the symmetry of the temple has
been lost and so the circumambulatory passage round the two
shrines is narrow in the south and wide (as originally intended)
in the north. There is a double-storyed tiruch-churru-maligai running
all round the twin shrines hugging the wall of enclosure. The
passage between the shrines and the peristyle is now covered
excepting round the portions adjoining the srivimanas of the
two shrines. The gopuram over the inner gateway is three-storeyed
with a griva and a sala- type sikhara with five kalasas on top.
In the second prakara lies the Achalesvarar shrine, in the
south-eastern side. While both the (twin) shrines face east, the
Achalesvarar shrine faces west; it is one of the four important
shrines in this complex, dedicated to Siva leaving out the twin
shrines, the other three being the Atakesvarar shrine, the Anandes-
varar shrine and the Siddhisvarar shrine which are located res-
pectively in the south-west, north-west and north-east corners
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
275
of the second prakara; these are, however, very small shrines
constructed during later periods, the Anandesvarar being an
all-brick structure. Another structure of note in this prakara is
the big hall known as the Rajanarayanan Tirumandapam (named
after a surname of Kulottunga I) which lies between the eastern
gopurams of the first and the second prakaras. It spreads longi-
tudinally in the east-west direction, measuring 47.24 ms (155')
by 1 7-37 ms (57 )3 an d is symmetrical about the axis of the
Valmikinathar shrine and of the two gopurams. This mandapa
has a low basement of 0.91 m (three feet) height. The
Amman shrine dedicated to Nilotpalambal is situated in the
northern prakara facing south, its axis running between the
inner gopuram and the Rajanarayana tirumandapam. It consists of
a rectangular garbhagriha with an ardhamandapa and a mukhaman-
dapa. All these edifices lie in the space within the second wall of
enclosure. The gopuram in the east on this wall of enclosure is
stocky and short with three storeys, with the griva and the sala-
type sikhara crowned with nine kalasas.
In the third prakara, there are two noteworthy monuments,
both mandapas; one of them, the Devasrayan mandapam, is a hun-
dred-pillared hall (though erroneously generally described as a
thousand-pillared hall), covering an area of 64.01 ms (210') by
42 .67 ms ( 1 40') . It has a low plinth, the height being only o. 76 m (two
feet and a half) . This hall has original association with Sundarar’s
Tiruttondat-togai. A modest structure, this was rebuilt in stone in
the Later Chola period. The other is another big mandapam known
as Nataraja mandapam at the rear of the temple-complex close
to the outer western gopuram ; it stands on a high and massive
basement of 1.83 ms (six feet) over the ground level. Close to the
north-east corner of the third wall of enclosure is the chariot-
temple depicting the Manu-niti Chola episode. It is a modern
structure except for the basement, wheels and some of the pillars.
The third wall of enclosure is dominated by four tall gopurams
over the four openings ( tiru-vasal ) in it in the east, south, west
and north. The gopuram in the east in the tallest and the largest
of them all and measures 33.52 ms (no') by 18.29 ms (60') at
the base and is 36.58 ms (120') tall. It is an elu-nilai (seven-
276
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
storeyed) gopuram and has eleven kalasas over its Lfl/a-type sikhara.
Like the Chidambaram gopurams, its gateway portion comprises
two tiers. This gopuram is attributable to Kulottunga III.
Of all these buildings which accrued over nearly six hundred
years, the earliest is the Valmikinathar shrine, followed by the
Thyagaraja shrine which, however, was re-built during the days
of Rajendra I. Then comes the Achalesvarar shrine built during
the days of Sembiyan Mahadevi and Rajaraja I. The two man-
dap as of Devasrayan and Rajanarayanan also are noteworthy
structures.
We are here concerned only with the Thyagaraja shrine.
Thyagaraja Shrine
On the walls of this shrine there are seven inscriptions of
Rajendra I covering a span of 17 years of his reign (from the
third to his twentieth year) . In the third year record which begins
with the short introduction irattaipadi elarai ilakkamum, the details
of the quantity of gold which was used for plating and gilding
the various parts of a golden pavilion are given (ponnin tiruman-
dapam). From an eighth year record, we learn that a gift of a
necklace of precious stones was made for the goddess, the
consort of Udaiyar Vidi-Vitanka devar by Perumakkalur Udai-
yan Veydan Seyyapadam of Gangaikondasolapuram. Two
other records of the same year relate to provisions for feeding
twelve Sivayogins in the temple and for making two gold ear-orna-
ments to the god and for providing offerings and oil for the bath
of the god and further gifts of gold for supplying clothes to the
images and fees to temple singers and servants. Another incom-
plete record of this king mentions a royal order to Velalakuttan
alias Sembiyan Muvendavelan to cover with gold plates certain
portions of the garbhagriha and the ardhamandapa of the temple
(ARE 675 of 1919). The inscription, dated in the twentieth
regnal year, gives a list of gifts made by the king and a noble
lady Anukkiyar Paravai Nangaiyar for plating and gilding
certain portions of the temple. It also includes a number of
jewels and lamps given to the god Vidi-Vitanka-devar. There
is a reference to a standard unit of weight for measuring gold
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME 277
termed Rajarajan kasu-nirai-kal. What is of significance to us is
that it also mentions that the temple of Thyagaraja was built of
stone in the eighteenth regnal year of the king by Anukkiyar
Paravai Nangaiyar. Besides, the inscription goes on to say that
between the thirty-eighth and the 199th days of the eighteenth
regnal year, the pious woman also made liberal endowments
for gold-plating and gilding parts of the vimana, the entrance and
the four sides of the shrine (ARE 680 of 1919 — “udaiyar vidivitanka
devar koyilil koodattilum vaimadaiyilum nalu nasiyilum ul koottattilum ..”) .
Mention is also made of the donation of copper for plating the
doors, and the corbels of the pillars of the mandapa in front of the
shrine. It further says that in his (the king’s) twentieth regnal
year, the king accompanied by Anukkiyar Paravai Nangaiyar
arrived at the temple by chariot and offered worship at the shrine.
And it adds that a kuttu-vilakku ( a standing lamp) was donated
to the shrine for being lighted at the same spot where the two
stood and offered worship. In brief, therefore, between the
sixteenth and the eighteenth years of Rajendra I the earlier brick
structure was converted into a stone structure; and between
the thirty-eighth and 199th days of the eighteenth year, the
finishing touches were given to the shrine, including gilding and
gold plating; and finally in the twentieth regnal year, the shrine
was honoured with a visit by the king and Anukkiyar Paravai
Nangaiyar. The inscription further says that all these gifts were
not taken into the temple books and the temple treasury till the
twentieth year of Rajendra I (a.d. 1032).
The same lady raised a mandapa known as “ Rajendrachola-
devari” and made provision for offerings to the images of
Rajendra Chola and Paravai, according to a twenty-seventh
year record of Rajadhiraja I (ARE 679 of 1919). Another record
of the same king dated in his thirty-first year mentions that in
compliance with the orders of the king, Venkatan Tirunila-
kanthan alias Adhikari Irumudisola Muvendavelan utilised cer-
tain gold and silver vessels in the temple treasury for the erection
of a golden pavilion for the god Udaiyar Vidi-Vitanka devar
of Tiruvarur. Among the inscriptions of Rajendra II, one is
significant; in a royal order, the king directed Velala-kuttan
278 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
alias Sembiyan Muvendavdan to cover with gold certain portions
of the garb hagriha and the ardhamandapa of the adjoining Valmiki-
nathar shrine. During the days of Kulottunga I there were two
significant developments; on the south wall of the second prakara,
which should have been built in the early years of Kulottunga I,
we have two inscriptions; one (ARE 561 of 1904) mentions for
the first time the Devasrayan mandapam (the so called thousand-
pillared hall) ; as this inscription is dated in the forty-ninth year
of the king, we may presume that the present structure of this hall
was built during his time. From the other inscription (ARE 541
of 1904) dated in his forty-fourth year, we come to know of the
existence of a shrine for the Amman called Ulaguyyakonda-
Kamakkottam. We may conclude that this Amman shrine was also
a foundation of the days of Kulottunga I. Thus by the end of the
reign of Kulottunga I, the campus of the temple had expanded
considerably, and the buildings within the second wall of enclosure
including the wall itself, the gopuram thereon and the Amman
shrine had all come into existence. Covering the remaining rulers
briefly, we observe that according to the Tribhuvanam inscrip-
tions of Kulottunga III, the sabhapati-mandapa in the rear third
prakara and also the massive eastern gopuram (the tallest of all)
on the third wall of enclosure were built by him. A later Vijaya-
nagara record dated in Saka 1362 (a.d. 1440) mentions that the
western gopuram over the second prakara wall was built by Nagara-
sar, son of Siddharaja for the merit of the Minister Lakkhana
Dannayaka Udaiyar (ARE 566 and 567 of 1904). Finally during
the Maratha king Sarfoji’s days certain repairs were made and
a kumbhabhishekam performed on a date equivalent to kali 4818
and Saka 1639 (a.d. 1717).
Like the Valmikinathar shrine, its northern neighbour,
this shrine faces east; it consists of a garbhagriha which measures
5.47 ms (18') square; the ardhamandapa projects 6.10 ms (20')
forward; the latter is almost a square; there is a mahamandapa
in front which has an entrance in the southern side; this is reached
by a flight of steps from the floor level of the prakara. Ahead of
this is the mukhamandapa, which, as mentioned already, bestrides
both this and the Valmikinathar shrine providing a common
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
279
front; this hall measures 19.51 ms (64') by 18.29 ms (6o'). The
two shrines have a common prakara and there is the tiruch-churru-
maligai which runs the entire length of the rectangular wall of
enclosure. It is double-storeyed and has a number of cells in the
ground floor housing a variety of deities. On the southern side,
there are two sets of icons of the 63 Tamil saints — one set in metal
and the other in stone. In the south-west and the north-west
corners, improvised cells have been provided for housing Gana-
pati and Karttikeya respectively. In between are a set of bronzes.
Among them are those of Nataraja and Chandrasekharar which
are noteworthy. They are housed in a later mandapa merging
with the peristyle (Pis 267 to 274).
The garbhagriha has three devakoshtas in its outer faces, housing
Dakshinamurti in the south, Vishnu in the west and Brahma
in the north. The adhishthanam consists of the usual mouldings of
padmam, kumudam, th tyali frieze and the varimanam* .
BRAHMADESAM (S.A.)
PATALISVARAR TEMPLE 65
The temple of Patalisvarar is situated within the village of
Brahmadesam, whereas the Brahmapurisvarar temple already
dealt with under Rajaraja I’s temples is outside the village limits.
The earliest inscription in this temple belongs to the twenty-
fourth year, 230th day of Rajendra I. It relates to a gift of land
for worship and offerings to this deity by one Parantakan Sut-
tamalliyar alias Mukkokilanadigal for the success of the king’s
arms ( bhujam vardhikka ). The inscription adds that at the time of
the grant, the king was residing in the temple of Rajarajesvaram
Udaiyar, perhaps the Brahmapurisvarar temple itself in the
neighbourhood (ARE 188 of 1918). A gift of land was made in the
twenty-ninth year, 342nd day during the reign of Rajadhiraja (I)
(ARE 194 of 1918). The next is an inscription of the fourth
*A good survey of Sri Thyagaraja temple, Tiruvarur by S. Ponnusamy is published by the
Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu.
28 o
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
year of Vira Rajendra which also refers to a gift of paddy (ARE
195 of 1918). There are two inscriptions of Kulottunga Chola I;
the first, of the seventh regnal year, mentions that a certain
shepherd of Eydar (the old name for Esalam, a southern
hamlet of Rajaraja chaturvedimangalam) received 32 cows
and agreed to burn a perpetual lamp in the temple of Tirup-
patalisvaram (ARE 190 of 1918). The other one of the eighteenth
year is incomplete. During Vikrama Chola’s period there are
two records relating to gifts to the temple (ARE 187 and 193
of 1918). There is the usual donation by one Alagan, in the
shape of 16 cows for a lamp in expiation of the sin of accidentally
killing a friend in a hunting expedition. This inscription is dated
in the thirteenth year of Kulottunga II (ARE 185 of 1918).
The next one is a 14th year record of Parakesarivarman alias
Rajaraja deva (II) which quotes a twenty-first year record of
Kulottunga Chola deva (I or II?) and refers to a gift of land by
the assembly for worship of the image of Aludai Nachchiyar
set up in the temple, by one Irungolar on the day of the consecra-
tion and the celebration of the marriage festival (ARE 192 of
1918). There are two inscriptions of Kulottunga III belonging
to his sixteenth and twenty-sixth years. The former is about
a gift of two she-buffaloes, an ox and two calves for the purpose
of burning a lamp in the temple of Patalisvaram Udaiya Nayanar
by one Sengeni Mangalamittan Ammaiyappan Mittan Appan
alias Cholendrasinga Sambuvarayan. The other is with regard
to a gift of a gold diadem to Patalisvaram Udaiya Nayanar (at
Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeyam and taniyur in Panai-
yur nadu, a sub-division of Rajaraja valanadu), by a merchant of
Ulogamadevipuram, a nagaram in Oyma nadu (ARE 189 and
186 of 1918). The last of the inscriptions is one of Kampana
Udaiyar, son of Vira Bukkana Udaiyar dated in Saka 1256
(a.d. 1334). It mentions the remission of taxes by Goppanangal
on the lands in Kulottungasola-nallur alias Brahmesvaram belong-
ing to the temples of Brahmesvaram Udaiya Nayanar and Tirup-
Patalisvaram Udaiya Nayanar of Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam,
a brahmadeyam and taniyur.
The temple faces east. It is an eka-tala temple with a
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
28 l
garbhagriha, an ardhamandapa, an antarala and a mukhamandapa. In
addition, there is a detached hall in front of the temple which
may belong to a later date. The garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa, the
antarala, the adhishthanam and the walls are of stone but the griva
and the sikhara portions are of brick — perhaps a later renovation.
In the case of the mukhamandapa, only the adhishthanam is of stone,
the walls and the entablature being of brick. There is no hara
over the walls in the garbhagriha and like many other earlier
structures, the superstructure starts off straightaway with the
griva and the sikhara. There are four grivakoshtas which are now
empty.
Certain special features of this temple bring to mind the lay-
out of the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur and the Gangaikonda-
cholisvaram at Gangaikondasolapuram. We have already noticed
that the main entrance to the sanctum sanctorum of these temples
is not provided in the axis of the building but in the flanks ; thus
there are two doorways reached by a flight of steps flanked by
low and sinuous balustrades from the northern and the southern
prakaras. The peculiar feature of the mukhamandapa is that it is
in the form of a massive cross with the northern and the eastern
sides completely walled up, while on the southern side there are
two sets of steps from the sides leading up to the projecting portion
of the hall. The ardhamandapa has six very finely carved pillars
in the typical style of the Rajaraja-Rajendra period, massive,
attractive and graceful. Between the ardhamandapa and the
mukhamandapa, there is a small antarala into which the two gates
from the sides open. On either side of the entrance to the ardha-
mandapa, there are two Rajaraja-type dvarapalas. The detached
structure in front of the mukhamandapa must have presented a
graceful and fine facade to the entire temple, but now it is in
ruins. There is a collapsed hall in the south-eastern corner of
what was once the prakara of the temple; it might have served
as a madam ( matha ) with a kitchen. The entire structure is in a
state of utter disrepair.
282
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
PANAYAVARAM
NETRODDHARAKASVAMIN (PARAVAI ISVARAM
66 UDAIYAR) TEMPLE
The village of Panayavaram, which has rich historical
association, lies in the belt of great temples on the ancient route
from Vriddhachalam to Kanchipuram, covering centres like
Esalam, Ennayiram, Brahmadesam, Emapperur and Dada-
puram : it is to the north-west of Villupuram town. In this village
there is a temple dedicated to Netroddharakasvamin.
Among the inscriptions found on the walls of the central
shrine of this temple, the earliest would appear to be one belonging
to Parakesarivarman alias Udaiyar Sri Rajendra Chola deva I;
it is found on the south, east and north walls of the shrine and
the stones on which it is engraved are in disorder; undated, it
seems to record a gift of land and money for worship and offerings,
to the temple (ARE 317 of 1917). On the south wall, there is
an undated inscription, whose king is also not known, which
provides for offerings and lamps to Rajendrasola devar and
Paravai nangaiyar, evidently metallic icons set up in the temple
(ARE 320 of 1917). There are two dated inscriptions both
belonging to the sixth regnal year of Rajendrasola deva; one of
them, found on the south wall, begins with the introduction
tirumagal maruviya and is therefore attributable to Rajendradeva II ;
it mentions a gift of paddy for a lamp to the temple of Paravai
Isvaram Udaiya Mahadevar, by a native of Tandalam in Jayan-
gondasola mandalam (ARE 318 of 1917). Thus, for the first
time, we get to have the name of the temple, which confirms
the association of Paravai Nangai with it. On the same wall is
the other inscription of the sixth year of Rajendra Chola deva,
which bears close similarity to the characters of the earlier
inscription of Rajendra II, referred to; thus attributable to
the same king, it mentions a gift of paddy for the purpose of
keeping a lamp burning in the temple, whose deity is again
named Paravai Isvaram Udaiya Mahadevar, in the city of
Paravaipuram in Puraiyur nadu, a sub-division of Panaiyur
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
283
nadu in Rajendrasola valanadu (ARE 319 of 1917)*.
There is a stray and fragmentary inscription on the south
wall of the first prakara which provides for various requirements
of the temple of Madurantaka Isvaram Udaiyar at Paravaipuram
in Puraiyur nadu, a subdivision of Panaiyur nadu which was a
district of Rajendrasola valanadu. This is immediately above a
later inscription of the Vijayanagara period (ARE 327 of 1917).
This inscription cannot be far removed in date from the others
found on the walls of the central shrine and in all probability
is attributable to the reign of Rajendradeva itself (Pis 275 to
277).
Here is mention made for the first time of the Madurantaka
Isvaram Udaiyar temple; since this record is a fragment, it is
not possible to ascertain to which temple the record originally
belonged. Perhaps there was another temple, named after a
surname of Rajendra Chola I.
The remaining inscriptions are all found on the walls of the
mandapa in front of the central shrine or on the prakara walls.
One of them on the south wall of the mandapa provides for offerings
and worship, reading of the Sivadharma, recitation of the Tirup-
padiyam hymns and musical performances on the vinai in the
temple (ARE 321 of 1917).
An epigraph on the east wall of the same mandapa belongs to
to the third year of Parakesarivarman alias Udaiyar Sri
Adhirajendra deva and mentions a gift of land by purchase to
the temple, by a native of Punganjeri in Milalai kurram , a district
of Rajaraja Pandi Nadu (ARE 322 of 1917).
A fragmentary record (ARE 323 of 1917) found on the same
wall mentions the temples of Paravai-Isvaramudaiyar and
Rajendrasola vinnagar Alvar; unfortunately neither the name of
the king nor the year of the record is available from the frag-
ments; however, it provides for maintaining a teacher in a free
school ( dhanma-palli ) and for three water-sheds, one each in
front of the two temples of Paravai Isvaram Udaiyar and
*Ennayiram alias Rajaraja-chaturvedimangalam was a taniyur in Panaiyur nadu, a sub-
division of Rajendrasola valanadu in Jayangondasola mandalam (Ennayiram: ARE 330 of
I9I7)-
284 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
Rajendrasola vinnagar and the third in front of the mandapa
called “Rajendrasolan” ; provision was also made for the main-
tenance of one who supervised the devadana, salabhoga and the
temples. A feeding house was also attached to the temple, like
the one at Ennayiram, though smaller in size; provision was
made for conducting a hostel (salai) which fed daily 50 brah-
manas and 10 Sivayogins who were also given oil for bathing (Also
see Appendix under section on Ennayiram in Chapter 2) .
For the first time, we come to hear of the temple (or shrine)
of Rajendrasola vinnagar Alvar, in evident reference to a Vishnu
temple named after Rajendra Chola I. This temple requires to
be identified.
On the south wall of the first prakara there is a much damaged
fifth year inscription of Maravarman alias Vikrama Pandya deva
which refers to the temple of Kannamanda Nayanar in Puravar
Panangattur in Panaiyur (ARE 324 of 1917). On the same wall
is another epigraph also belonging to Vikrama Pandya deva;
dated in his sixth regnal year, it records a gift of offerings and
other requirements to the same temple (ARE 325 of 1917).
An inscription on the same wall belonging to Kampana
Udaiyar, son of Bokkana Udaiyar, seems to record a gift of
land; in it we get references to Puravur Panaingattur and
Sembai in Vanagoppadi nadu on the northern banks of the
Pennai (Pennar) (ARE 327 of 1917).
The Amman shrine in the same temple complex belongs to
a much later period. The Consort is called Satyambika. On the
south wall of this shrine there is an inscription that belongs to
Viruppana Udaiyar, son of Ariyana Udaiyar (Harihara II)
dated in Saka 1312; it records a tax-free gift of the village of
Kunralur in Koliyapuranallur-parru for worship, festivals and
repairs to the temple of Udaiyar Kannamanda Nayanar at
Tiruppuravur Panaingattur alias Paravaipuram in Poraiyur
nadu, a sub-division of Panaiyur nadu which was a district of
Rajaraja valanadu (ARE 328 of 1917).
Panaiyavaram was the headquarters of the nadu of the same
name; and Paravaipuram was perhaps a part of the township
where the temple was situated; evidently the latter derived
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
285
its name of Paravaipuram from Paravai Nanagaiyar, who was
a great favourite of king Rajendra I (See section on Tiruvarur),
The name of this Lady is reminiscent of Paravai Nachchiyar
one of the two wives of the Tamil saint Sundaramurti Nayanar.
KAVANTANDALAM
CHOLISVARAM (RAJENDRASOLA-
ISVARAMUDAIYA MAHADEVAR) 67
Kavantandalam k a village in Kanchipuram taluk in Chingle-
put district ; it is on the north bank of the river Cheyyar and is
approached by a 5 km long road along the Cheyyar bank from a
point about 19 kms south of Kanchipuram on the Kanchipuram-
Uttaramerur road. The ancient town of Magaral is on the way.
There are two temples in this village, one dedicated to Vishnu
and the other to Siva.
( 1 ) Laks hmina rayana Perumal temple
Much older than Cholisvaram, this temple, dedicated to
Vishnu, was built by Manasarpan of Kunnoor in Vengai nadu
and completed in the fourteenth year of the king Kampavarman
as known from an inscription (ARE 207 of 1901), on the south
wall of the central shrine of this temple; in this inscription, the
Sabha of the Chaturvedimangalam records that it sold for gold
two pattis of land and a flower-garden to the same Manasarpan
who erected the temple; the deity of the temple is called Vishnu-
grihattu-perumanadigal. From another record, also found on the
south wall and dated in the eighteenth year of Kampavarman,
we learn of the provision made for the annual celebration of the
Chittirai Tiruvonam festival for the Perumanadigal of the Manasarpa
Vishnugriham in the Chaturvedimangalam, in Damanur nadu
in Urrukkattuk-kottam (ARE 208 of 1901 & SII, VII, 421).
The building of the temple by Manasarpan is formally recorded
in a Grantha inscription found on the west wall of the central
shrine (ARE 209 of 1901). This temple is thus a foundation of
the days of the Pallava king Kampavarman and a dated one.
286
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
(2) Cholisvaram
A reference to this temple is made in an inscription found
on the north and west walls of the Lakshminarayana temple.
Immediately after the Sanskrit introduction in the prasasti, the
Tamil portion reads as follows:
“ Kopparakesari varmarana sri Rajendra sola devarkku yandu
\-vadu...Jayangondasola mandalattu Urrukkattuk-kottattut Tamanoor
nattuk Kaaivantandalamana Chalurvedimangalattu sabhaiyom ir-
rainal pagal emmur brahmasthnattey kuttak-kuraivara kudi irundu
ivvandu innaduvagaiseykinra Vaidoor udaiyan vallan Gandan Pich-
chan sri Rajendra solan ennum tiru nammattal eduppitta sri Rajendra
sola isvaram udaiya mahadevarkku sabhaiyom irai-ili devadanamaga
vaitta nilangalil ..."
After this the inscription proceeds to indicate the allocation
of these lands to the Sivabrahmanas doing the tiru aradhanai
(workship) and the cook (maani) who does the paricharakam
and then lays down the break-up of the rice for the morning,
noon and other services for the Udaiyar. The record further
deals in detail with the provisions made for rice, vegetables,
curds, arecanuts and others and also for bathing of the deity
during certain festivals like the Uttarayanam, Dakshinayanam,
Aippasi-visu, Chittirai-visu and so on. The provision included
gold gifts. The record is incomplete (ARE 210 of 1901).
From this record we come to know that the temple of Cholis-
varam was a foundation of the days of Rajendra I and should
have come into existence immediately before the fourth year
of his reign. There are a number of records on the walls of the
central shrine of this temple (ARE 203, 204, 204- A, 205 of 1901).
An inscription dated in the sixth year of Vikrama Chola deva
refers to a gift of six kasus of money by the mahasabhai of the
brahmadeyam, viz-, Kaaivaan-tandalam alias Chaturvedimanga-
lam (ARE 205 of 1901). The record mentions a gift of land for
food offerings, archanai and maintenance. There are two more
records of Vikrama Chola’s period; one of his fifth year (ARE
204 of 1901) refers to a gift of land by a lady, Punkamala selvi,
the wife of Devan alias Kuruchcha Udaiyan of Kiliyur nadu in
Chola mandalam ; here the name of the deity is partially damaged ;
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I*S TIME 287
we however get the portion .durai al-udaiyar” in the brahma-
deyam of Kavantandalam in Damanur nadu in Urrukkattuk-
kottam in Jayangondasola mandalam; and the other of his
fifth and sixth years (ARE 2 04- A of 1901) records an order of
the Sabha accepting money on behalf of the Sivabrahmanas of the
temple from three ladies, Punkamala Selvi, her sister Pillai
Nangai, and Tiruvarangasani, for burning three sandhi lamps
(twilight lamps). We get the full name of the deity in this in-
scription, viz- 3 brahmadeyam Kaaivaan-tandalattu-Tiruvaraichchandurai
Aludaiyar.
A record of Kulottunga Chola deva III relating to his twenty-
sixth year calls the village Sri-karana-chaturvedimangalam,
the other administrative divisions being the same as in the days
of Vikrama Chola. This refers to a gift of land made to the temple
and entrusted for management to the Sabha of the village by some
donees including one Tiruvalanjuli Udaiyan, the karanan of
Kavantandalam, and two brothers Isanadevan and Periya
Pillai, both kaikolars of Irukkundar-koyil of Tirupputtur in
Chola mandalam.
The temple faces east. It has a garbhagriha, an antarala and a
mukhamandapa. To the north of the mukhamandapa is the cella
containing the Amman, who is known by the name of Sundaram-
bal. The walls of the garbhagriha are rectangular, while the super-
structure above the prastara including the griva and the sikhara
is in the apsidal form. The devakoshta figures are Ganapati and
Dakshinamurti in the south, Vishnu in the west and Brahma
and Durga in the north. The temple has undergone radical
change in structure during some distant renovation.
This is a dated temple relating to the fourth year of
Rajendra I (i.e., a.d. 1016).
KUVAM
TRIPURANTAKESVARAM 68
(TIRUVIRTKOLAM)
Kuvam, a small village in the Tiruvallur taluk of Chingleput
288
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
district, is reached by proceeding 34 kms on the Madras-Sri-
perumbudur road and branching off to a district road to the right
on which 22 kms are traversed before reaching a bifurcation,
one road to the right going to Perumbakkam and the other to
the left going to Kuvam, a distance of 1 km from the junction.
The village is on the Chingleput-North Arcot district border.
It is situated not far from the famous Vaishnavite centre of
Sriperumbudur, associated with Acharya Ramanuja and the
the celebrated Saivite centre of Takkolam, where is situated the
temple of Tiruvural Mahadevar. Kuvam was called Kuham in
ancient days, and the Siva temple, now known as the Tripuran-
takesvaram, was called the temple of Tiruvirtkolam Udaiya
Nayanar. The deity of Tripurantakar holds a bow in his hand
poised to destroy the Tripura asuras.
Sambandar (seventh century a.d.) has a decad of verses on
the Lord of Tiruvirtkolam installed at Kuham. The deity of
Tiruvirtkolam is variously described, as the Lord combined with
Uma in one person (Ardhanarisvarar) , one who with one arrow
destroyed the Tripura asuras, one whose throat is black with poison,
one who overthrew Yama (Kalan), one who founded the Vedas,
the Vedangas and the Agamas, one who wore the Ganga and the
crescent on his spread-out locks of hair, one who humbled the
Lord of Lanka (Ravana) and one who defied the search of Brahma
and Vishnu and thereby established his supremacy over them.
The earliest epigraph found in this temple is inscribed on
the north and west walls of the central shrine (ARE 328 of 1909) ;
it begins with the historical introduction of Tiru-madar-puviyenum
and relates to the fifth regnal year of Parakesari Rajendra Chola
deva (II) (a.d. 1057). It registers the sale of land for 160 kasus
by the assembly of Kottur alias Chola-vidyadhara-chaturvedi-
mangalam in Manavil kottam of Jayangondasola mandalam. The
land was meant to dig a feeder channel to Tribhuvana Madevip-
per-peri at Kuvam alias Madurantaka-nallur. Madhurantaka was
a title of Rajendra I and Tribhuvana Ma(ha)devi was one of his
queens. Hence it seems reasonable to assume that the present
temple built of stone might have come into existence even during
the period of Rajendra I.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
289
The next inscription of the Middle Chola period is one of the
second regnal year of Udaiyar Vira Rajendra deva (a.d. 1065).
It concerns a sale of certain lands in four villages to a person who
later made a gift of them to this temple in the twentieth year of
Kulottunga I (ARE 338 of 1909). It is stated that in respect of
these lands each of the four adjoining assemblies claimed them
as their own. They met together to resolve this tangle and decided
that the disputed land should be made over to the temple of
Tiruvirtkolam Udaiyar at Madurantakanallur (Kuvam). At this
stage, a certain Akkalibhattan, a devotee of the temple, came
forward to purchase the land on condition that the residents of
the four villages agreed to fixing the boundaries of the lands.
This was done, Akkalibhattan bought the lands and presen-
ted them to the temple in the twentieth regnal year of
Kulottunga I.
An inscription (ARE 345 of 1909) of the third regnal year
of Tribhuvana chakravartin to be identified with Kulottunga I
concerns a gift of money for a lamp by a native of Tiruvilimilalai.
Another inscription of this king dated in his fifteenth year refers
to a gift of 20 kasns for a lamp by a native of Palaiyanur near
Tiruvalangadu in Tondai Nadu (ARE 336 of 1909). An inscrip-
tion, in prose and verse, on the west wall of the central shrine,
relating to his forty-second year, refers to a gift of paddy and
fishing rights ( min-pattam ) for repairs and maintenance of the
Tribhuvana-madevip-^r-m at Kuvam alias Madurantakanallur
(ARE 326 of 1909). An inscription of his forty-eighth year found
on the north wall of the central shrine mentions a gift of land
for offerings to the deity of Vrishabhavahana devar in the temple
(ARE 330 of 1909).
In the days of Vikrama Chola, Kuvam {alias Maduran-
takanallur) was renamed Tyagasamudra-nallur, after a surname
of this ruler. This new name is found in an inscription of the
eighth year of Kulottungasola deva II, which records a gift of
money for a lamp to Tiruvirtkolam Udaiyar (ARE 329 of 1909).
This region was ruled temporarily by Vijaya Gandagopala
deva but was soon conquered by the Pandyas (ARE 322 of 1909).
There is a gift for a festival called Kulasekhara-^n^i in the
290
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
twenty-seventh regnal year of a Tribhuvanachakravartin Konerin-
maikondan (a.d. 1295), who is to be identified with Maravarman
Kulasekhara (a.d. 1268 to 1308).
There are two inscriptions of the Vijayanagara rulers. One
of these, relating to the time of Venkatapati Raya of Anegundi,
mentions a gift of land in Tribhuvanamadevi mangalam (a part
of Kuvam) evidently to the local temple (ARE 327 of 1909).
The other one, dated in Saka 1532 (a.d. 1610), provides for
special worship in the month of Margali (December) to Tiruvirt-
kolisvarar by Mahamandalesvara Goppuni Obaraya deva
Maharaya (ARE 332 of 1909).
This region passed into the hands of the Sultan of Golkonda
shortly thereafter; a certain person is said to have planted a grove
of trees at Kuvam for the merit of Timmappa Nayudu and
presented it to the local temple. Another gift of a grove for main-
taining a lamp to be burnt before Tripurantakasvamin was
made in a.d. 1855.
This temple was perhaps a brick structure in the seventh
century A.D. (the days of Sambandar). The earliest inscription
in the newly-built stone temple belongs to the period of Rajendra-
deva II, but its construction might have been begun even in the
days of his father, Rajendra I.
The original temple of Rajendra I’s period seems to have
consisted of the garbhagriha (6.69 ms across the axis and 8.36 ms
along its length) and the ardhamandapa. The mukhamandapa is
of a later age. The garbhagriha is square, and the part of the
vimana over it is apsidal. In this respect, it resembles the Pallava
temple of Virattanesvarar at Tiruttani. It has three talas like
the Adipurisvarar temple at Tiruvorriyur, which was built in the
days of Rajendra I. The adhishthanam, no cms high, is adorned
with many mouldings (Pis 278 to 282).
The devakoshta sculptures are Ganapati and Dakshinamurti
in the south, Lingodbhavar in the rear and Brahma and Durga
in the north.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME 2gi
AGARAM (CH.)
KAILAS ANATHAR TEMPLE 69
Agaram, a village in the Chingleput taluk of the same district,
is 42 kms from Madras city from where it is reached by proceeding
on the coastal road to Kelambakkam and Tirupporur, from
where a district road proceeding in a south-westerly direction
is taken to reach Manamadi; Agaram is closeby, having in fact
had Manamadi as a part of the larger town of Agaram in the
Chola days.
In Agaram and Manamadi there are the following temples:
1) Kailasanathar temple, Agaram;
2) Sri Tirukkarisvarar temple, Manamadi, and
3) Vaikuntha perumal temple, Manamadi.
Agaram was a thriving locality during the days of the Middle
Cholas and was known as Vanavan Mahadevi chaturvedimanga-
lam. It was situated in Kumili nadu, a subdivision of Amur
kottam in Jayangondasola mandalam. Manamadi was part of
this chaturvedimangalam.
From an inscription dated in the eighth regnal year of
Rajendra I found on the south wall of the mandapa in front of the
central shrine of the Siva temple at Agaram called presently
Kailasanathar temple, we gather that the king founded the village
of Vanamangai and settled in it four thousand brahmanas. The
king is variously described as Sengol-valavan, the king who estab-
lished just rule, Ponni-nadan, the ruler of the Kaveri basin,
Pumpuhar-talaivan, the Lord of the celebrated sea-port of
Pumpuhar alias Kaverip-pum-pattinam and the Supreme power
who established the Chola tiger crest on Mount Meru (the
Himalayas). In the same inscription, there is a reference to god
Adirai-Vitankar, evidently a processional deity taken out during
the Tiruvadirai festival and to the quarter named Adirai-vilagam,
attached to the temple (ARE 232 of 1930-31). Another inscription
found on the same wall also belongs to the reign of Rajendra I
and contains a Tamil verse on the king; it mentions the
completion of the stone temple of Tirukayilayar (Tirukkailasar)
292
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
at Vanavan Mahadevi by a king’s subordinate named Dippat-
taraiyan (ARE 231 of 1930-31). An inscription of the 40th
year of Kulottunga I (a.d. mo) records a gift of land by
purchase from the assembly of Vanavan Mahadevi chaturvedi-
mangalam in Kumili nadu, a sub-division of Amur kottam,
a district of Jayangondasola mandalam by a resident of Kalani-
vayil in Tiruvalundur nadu, a sub-division of Rajaraja valanadu,
in Chola mandalam (ARE 233 of 1930-31). In an inscription
dated in Kali 4,500 (a mistake for 4,503) is mentioned a gift of
land for repairs to the temple of Kailasanathar which is described
as being situated at Kailasamulai-agaram. Hence the modern
name of Agaram for the village (ARE 234 of 1930-31). This
new name is also confirmed by a Vijayanagara inscription dated
in Saka 1569 (a.d. 1647) which records the gift of the village
of Kailasamulai alias Agaram in Panaimulai sirmai in Tiruk-
kalukkunrap-parru, to the temple of Kandasvamin at Seyyur
(ARE 236 of 1930-31, found on a slab set up in the village).
Thus, on the basis of the inscriptional material available,
we come to know that in the eighth year of Rajendra I, a colony
of 4,000 Vedic scholars was established in this village and its
neighbourhood, which was named Vanavan Mahadevi agaram
or chaturvedimangalam, after the name of the king’s mother,
and that a structural stone temple, called that of Kailasamudai-
yar, was built here.
The temple faces east and consists of a square ardhamandapa,
having a central bhadra projection on each of the three sides, a
pillared ardhamandapa and a mukhamandapa. Externally, the
garbhagriha measures 6.44 ms along the axis of the temple by
6.55 ms across and the ardhamandapa projects 6.20 ms forward.
The mukhamandapa measures 11.40 ms by 10.60 ms. The garbha-
griha evidently stands on a high upapitham, which however is now
submerged in the ground; the adhishthanam measures 1.46 ms
above the upapitham, and consists of the padmam, jagati, tri-patta
kumudam and the kandam on top.
Over the garbhagriha there is no superstructure but obviously,
on the basis of the massiveness of the garbhagriha that now sur-
vives and the size of the adhishthanam and its height, the super-
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME 293
structure including the entablature should have been a grand
one, worthy of the temples built by Rajendra I.
In the niche on each of the three sides of the garbhagriha are
the usual devakoshtas, Vishnu in the rear and Dakshinamurti and
Brahma in the south and north; perhaps replacements over the
walls of the ardhamandapa are the icons of Durga in the north
and Ganesa in the south.
This glorious foundation of Rajendra I is now bereft of all
its glory.
TIRUPPASUR
VACHISVARAM (TIRUP-PASUR UDAIYAR)
TEMPLE 70
Tiruppasur lies about 48 kms north-west of the city of Madras
and about 6.50 kms north of Kadambattur railway station. This
centre has an ancient temple dedicated to Siva dating back
to the days of Appar and Sambandar. According to local
tradition, the Lord of this temple emanated from a clump of
bamboos ( pasu ), and the temple came up later at the site. The
tradition goes on to say that a local Kurumba Chief, inimically
disposed towards Karikala, the famous Chola king of the Sangam
age, sent him a pot with a coiled snake hidden in it, at the
prompting of the Jainas. Siva, Lord of Pasur, intercepted the evil
pot and rendered the snake innocuous, thus saving his devotee.
Appar has two hymns on the Lord of this temple. In his
Tiruppasur Tiruttandagam, the Lord is called the Divine Light
of Pasur ( Pasur meviya param sudar), Ardhanarisvarar ( padiyor -
madinan), the embodiment of the five elements, the Divine
Dancer, one who subdued the hooded snake, the poison-throated,
one who fought with Arjuna (Vijaya) in a hunter’s disguise
(Pasupata astra episode), one who danced with Kali, one versed
in the Vedas and the Vedangas, one who helped Kochchenganan
(the Chola king reputed to have been a spider-devotee of the
Lord of Tiruvanaikka in his previous birth), an adept in the
Panduranga dance, one who defied the search high and low of
294
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
Brahma and Vishnu (Lingodbhavar), one who speared Andha-
kasura to death, one who spurned with his feet and destroyed
Kala to save His devotee (Markandeya) , one who crushed with
his toe the ten-headed Ravana who attempted to lift Mount
Kailasa and who gained the Lord’s grace only after chanting
the Sama Veda. In his Tiruppasur Tirukkuruntogai , Appar has
described the Lord as one who destroyed the castles of the Tri-
pura asuras, Ardhanarisvarar, the destroyer of Kala (Yama),
one who danced with the snake in his hand, one who begged
for his food with a skull (Brahma’s) in his hand, one who was
inaccessible to Brahma and Vishnu (Lingodbhavar), one who
sat under the banyan tree and discoursed on dharma (as Dakshi-
namurti), and the subduer of Ravana’s pride.*
In his hymns, Sambandar calls the deity Pasurnathar, and
describes the temple as surrounded by groves with ponds and
fields, and with cuckoos cooing and honey-bees humming sweet
hymns. Pasur is described as full of tall mansions reaching up
to the very moon.**
In their age (seventh century a.d.), the temple would have
been either a structure of brick or a misra temple of brick and
stone. Like the Adipurisvarar temple at Tiruvorriyur, this is
a temple in the Tondaimandalam region which was reconstructed
of stone in the days of Rajendra I.
The main shrine has a square garbhagriha and an apsidal
sikhara , resembling in this the Pallava temple of Virattanesvarar
at Tiruttani (Early Chola Temples, pp.343 —4) and the Tripuranta-
kesvaram at Kuvam discussed in a preceding section.
Most of the inscriptionsf found on the walls of the main
shrine belong to the days of Kulottunga I ; but some belong to
the final days of the Middle Chola period. The earliest inscriptions
in the temple are of the days of Rajaraja I. On a broken slab
lying near the entrance to the hundred-pillared mandapa in the
temple is an inscription of his twelfth year, which refers to the
♦Vide p.471 and p.203 of Tirunavukkarasu Devaram, Saiva Siddhanta Samajam edition.
♦•Vide p.649 of Sambandar Desaram, same edition.
tlnscriptions, ARE 107 to 133 of 1929-30, are found on the walk of the main shrine, and
134 to 150 on the walls of the mandapa in front of it.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME
295
receipt of some money by the sab ha of Nallarrur in Kilsengai
nadu, a subdivision of Sengattu kottam, from the Tiruppasur
temple (ARE 156 of 1929—30). There is another record of his
days on a slab built into the floor of the west verandah in the
first prakara of the temple, dated in his twenty-ninth year. It
registers a sale of land made tax-free by the uravar of Serumani
Karanai to a certain . . . sola sundarar (ARE 151 of 1929-30).
Evidently, the earlier structure of the temple, as it existed in
the days of Rajaraja I, was replaced after his twenty-ninth regnal
year — most probably in the reign of Rajendra I. The earliest
Chola record on the main shrine is on its north wall and belongs
to the third year of Adhirajendra deva; it states that, while the
king was seated in the palace, Gangaikondasolan maligai, at
Gangaikondasolapuram, he remitted certain taxes leviable on the
village of Selai in Kakkalur nadu , a sub-division of Ikkattu
kottam, in Jayangondasola mandalam, as a devadana in favour of
the temple of Vey Idangondarulina Mahadevar (the Lord residing
amidst bamboo clumps) at Tiruppasur. (In an inscription of
Tribhuvanachakravartin Rajendra (III? : ARE 127 of 1929—30),
the Lord of the temple is called Purridam-kondar: Resident of
an ant-hill). The above remission seems to have been made at
the request of an officer called Araiyan Rajarajan alias Pandyan
for the conduct of certain services ( dharmam ) instituted by his
mother Rajasekharan Ramadevi in the temple. Mention is
also made of the names of several officers including those of the
Udan-kuttam (ARE 113 of 1929—30).
The Central Shrine
The main shrine of the temple faces east, and consists of a
garbhagriha, an antarala and a mukhamandapa, conceived in a grand
fashion as one unitary composition. The garbhagriha measures
(9.66 ms) 31' 8" long and (7.92 ms) 26' wide. The antarala
projects forward by (3.35 ms) 10' 1 " and is (7.54 ms) 24' 9"
wide. The mukhamandapa measures (7.77 ms) 25' 6" along the
axis of the temple and (8.83 ms) 29' in width; the internal mea-
surements are (6.40 ms) 21' 1" by (7.09 ms) 23' 3". Inside, the
garbhagriha is a square. At the entrance from the antarala to
296 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
the garbhagriha as well as at the entrance from the mukhamandapa
to the antarala , there are flanking pilasters, (empty) niches for
dvarapalas and a bkutagana frieze above. The mukhamandapa is
supported by twelve round pillars, four each in three north-south
rows.
The dvi-tala srivimana is massive and tall and in a good state
of preservation. The walls of the garbhagriha are high, measuring
4.48 ms (14' 8") from the ground level to the top of the cornice, the
adhishthanam itself measuring 1.07 ms (3' 6"). The garbhagriha is
one-tiered. The griva and sikhara are in brick and mortar and apsidal-
shaped ; the sikhara is crowned by five stupis and its front face has the
usual kirtimukha motif; the rest of the srivimana is entirely of stone,
except for some stucco work in the upper tala. In addition to the
fine set of stone sculptures in the niches of the garbhagriha
and antarala, there are beautifully carved stone sculptures covered
with stucco or figures wholly of stucco in the haras and griva.
We list them below (in clockwise order) :
Sculptures on the walls of the garbhagriha and antarala are:
South : Ganapati, Dakshinamurti (later)
West: Lingodbhavar
North: Brahma, Durga
The hara over the first tala has two rows of sculptures.
Row I:
South : (1) Ardhanari; (2) Brahma; (3) Dakshinamurti;
(4) Vishnu; (5) Sankaranarayana.
West: (1) Vrishabhantikar; (2) Vishnu; (3) Vishnu, seated
on a serpent with its five-headed hood over His head ( Adinatha ).
North: (1) Kalantakar; (2) Sankaranarayana, standing;
(3) Brahma, standing; (4) Bhairavar; (5) Chandrasekharar.
East: (1) Bhairavar; (2) Subrahmanyar ; (3) A seated figure,
unidentified.
Row II:
South: (1) Ganapati; (2) This nidha is vacant, but in a small
niche to its left is a Kali figure, and a small niche to it right is
empty; (3) Siva, seated, four-armed, with two attendants, one
on either side; (4) Vyakhyana Dakshinamurti; (5) Siva, seated
flanked by attendants on the left and by a devotee on the right;
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’S TIME 297
(6) A standing female figure, not identified, with an attendant
rishi ; (7) Unidentified.
West: (1) A male figure with uplifted arms (not identified) ;
(2) Two unidentified figures, perhaps images of benefactors;
(3) Yoga Narasimha; (4) Govardhanagiri-dhari ; (5) Lakshmi-
narayana (There is a Bhuvaraha image between the figures
of Yoga Narasimha and Govardhanadhari) .
North: (1) A saint; (2) A saint, standing; (3) An unidentified
deity; (4) Brahma, standing; (5) A saint; (6) Durga, standing;
(7) Mahesvari, seated, with a linga to the left.
East: (1) Surya (?) with lotuses in both hands; (2) Kartti-
keya; (3) Indra on elephant, and devotees; (4) Devotees;
(5) A two-armed, seated figure, not identified.
Sculptures in the niches of the second tala are:
South: (1) Siva, with sula and damaru in two hands, the
other two arms being in the abhaya and kati-avalambita poses;
(2) Siva, seated, with parasu and mriga in two hands, the other
two being broken; (3) Dakshinamurti, standing; (4) A standing
four-armed figure, unidentified : weapons in and postures of arms
not discernible; (5) Siva, standing, with parasu and mriga in two
hands, the other two arms being in the abhaya and varada poses.
West: (1) Dikpala (?); (2) Vishnu, standing; (3) Kaliya
Krishna.
North: (1) Dikpala; (2) Chandrasekharar (Siva, standing);
(3) Brahma, standing; (4) Siva (Bhairavar?) standing, with
sula and damaru in two hands, the other two being in the abhaya
and katihasta (?) poses; (5) Isana.
East: (1) Surya, two-armed, holding lotuses; (2) Subrah-
manyar, standing, holding akshamala and kundikai ; (3) Chandra.
Sculptures in the grivakoshtas: There are three niches each
in the northern, western (rear, apsidal) and southern faces of
the griva and one in the front face. The sculptures in them are
as follows (listed as usual in the clockwise sense) :
South: (1) Vrishabhantikar, standing, with Parvati to the
right and a sage to the left; (2) Vyakhyana Dakshinamurti;
(3) Alingina Chandrasekharar. Between Nos. (2) and (3) there
is a seated, two-armed figure of Siva (?).
298
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
West: (1) A seated saint, with a ‘ pandaram ’ type of turban;
(2) Vishnu, seated, with two denis; (3) A standing figure of a
saint.
North : (1) Bhikshatanar (arms broken) with the rishipatnis;
(2) Brahma, beardless, seated in padmasana, with akshamala
and kundika in two hands, the other arms being in the abhaya
and varada poses, and flanked by his consorts, Savitri and Saras-
vati: we recall a similar sculpture in the great temple at Gan-
gaikondasolapuram; (3) An excellent figure of Mahishasura-
mardini, eight-armed, the lion shown tearing into the flesh of
the buffalo-demon. Between Nos. (2) and (3), there is a beauti-
ful female figure, unidentified.
East: In the only niche here, there is a fine seated figure
of Uma Mahesvarar, flanked by dvarapalas. Mahesvarar holds
the parasu and the mriga in two hands, while the other two are
in the abhaya and varada poses. Uma holds a lotus in one hand
and the other rests on the pedestal; the left leg hangs down,
while the right leg is folded and tucked underneath the left leg
over the pedestal.
The garbhagriha and the two tiers above it are certainly
original, and even the grin a and the sikhara would appear to be
original, excepting that the surface of the sikhara might have
been plastered over later (Colour PI 17, and Pis 283 to 299).
In front of the mukhamandapa , there are two fine specimens
of dvarapalas in the Rajaraja I style, one on either side of the
entrance; they are massive, powerful of limb, almost fierce of
mein and well-proportioned.
Amman Shrine :
To the south of the Siva temple and almost identical with
it in size is the Amman shrine, of a later date and dedicated
to Svayam Mohanambika. From the architectural and sculp-
tural features we could attribute this temple to the period of
Kulottunga I.
Both the Siva and Amman temples are encompassed within
a common wall of enclosure, on the southern wing of which is
the main gopuram providing access to both the temples.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
299
A common hall put up later links the front portions of the
Siva and Amman temples; there is a mandapa at the northern
end of this hall in which are housed some good and some indiffer-
ent bronzes; of them, the Somaskandar and Tani Amman
images are worthy of note, the former having probably been
the utsava murti.
Embedded in the floor of the sopana mandapa in front of the
main shrine is a stray stone containing a royal edict with the
Chola royal crest, similar to what we find in their copper plate
grants.
The present structure is a temple of the days of Rajendra I
and is a fine specimen of this period in the Tondaimandalam
idiom. The hundred-pillared hall in the temple may be attributed
to Naralokaviran (the General under Kulottunga I and Vikrama
Chola), who also constructed similar halls at Chidambaram
and Tiruvadigai (near Cuddalore). The Amman shrine may be
attributed to the period of Kulottunga I. The wall of enclosure
in the outermost prakara along with the gopuram was built in the
days of Kulottunga III.
TIRUV ORRIYUR
ADIPURISVARAR TEMPLE 71
Tiruvorriyur, which is about 18 kms from Madras, is an
ancient town, whose annals can be gleaned from the large number
of inscriptions found on the walls of the temple here dedicated
to Adipurisvarar. It dates back to the days of Sambandar and
Sundarar. The former saint has sung the praises of the Lord of
Orriyur in eleven verses. The latter has sung a padigam in anguish
when he discovered that he was losing his eyesight — the punish-
ment he received for forgetting his promise to his wife Sangiliyar
that he would never leave her. Tradition has it that when he
was engrossed in the pleasures of married life, he was suddenly
put in mind of the fact that he had not had the darsana of Vithi-
Vitanka Peruman of Tiruvarur for a long time; forgetting his
promise to his wife, he set off from Tiruvorriyur for Tiruvarur;
300
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
he had hardly left the outskirts of the town when he began to
lose his sight.
This temple has grown in size over the centuries; by the end
of the fourteenth century, there were as many as five shrines,
five mathas and five mandapams in the campus, namely, the
Adipurisvarar (the main), Nataraja, Chamunda, Gaulisar
and Subrahmanyar shrines;
Rajendrasolan, Kulottungasolan, Tirujnana Sambandar, Nan-
dikesvarar and Angarayan mathas; and
Rajarajan, Rajendrasolan, Vyakarana-dana, Mannaikonda
solan, and Vakkanikkum mandapams.
The early history of the temple has been traced in my Early
Chola Temples (pp. 97—99).
There are as many as 149 inscriptions recorded on the walls
of the central shrine, on the mandapa in front of it, on the pillars
of the tiruch-churru-maligai, and on the walls of the sub-shrines,
the prakara and the gopuram.
As noted in Early Chola Temples, the central shrine was built
in the days of Rajendra I at the bidding of the Saivite religious
leader Chaturanana Pandita by the architect Ravi alias Virasola
Takshan, “of black granite without the least flaw, in three tiers
decorated with char anas, tor anas, kutas, nidhas (big and small),
simhamukhas and makaras ” (ARE 126 of 1912: SII, IV, 553).
This record is in Grantha, undated, and is found on the southern
side of the central shrine. The king appears to have held in great
respect this guru Chaturanana Pandita, who was his contempo-
rary in the line of succession of Niranjana Guravar (who flourished
in about the ninth century a.d.).
In the records of the temple, there is reference to the following
(twelve) deities in the temple campus :
Karanai Vitanka devar, Padampakka devar, Vattapirai
Amman (Pidariyar), Kshetrapala devar, Pillai Subrahman-
yar (Kumarasvami devar), Surya, Arinjisvaram Udaiyar,
Kampisvaram Udaiyar, Videlvidugu Isvarar, Durgaiyar,
Anukka Pillaiyar, and Vira Narasimhesvaram Udaiya
Nayanar.
A laige number of gifts and donations were made to the temple
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
301
and its adjuncts during the reign of Rajendra I. Chaturana Pandita
himself made a gift of 150 kasus for conducting the ceremonial
bathing of Mahadevar with ghee on the festival day coinciding
with the birthday of the king — the nakshatra (star) of Tiruvadirai
in the month of Margali (ARE 104 of 1912). A gift of 90 sheep
for a lamp was made by Gangaikondasolan alias Uttamasola-
marayan of Tiruvarur for the merit of one Ganavadi Idumban,
who stabbed himself to death in order to relieve the distress of
the donor (ARE 138 of 1912): this record also covers another
gift of 90 sheep for a lamp, by one Nimbala devi, wife of Indala
deva of Talaigrama in Virata desa (country round Hangal, itself
called Viratanagari or Viratankote in inscriptions). One Nakkan
Kodai alias Kanchipura Nangai, a magal (maid-servant?) of
Tiruvegambam Udaiya Mahadevar of the nagaram of Kanchi-
puram, deposited a gift of money with the inhabitants of Iganai-
yur on interest to be paid as paddy for providing offerings every
year at the festival of pudiyidu (the first crop?: ARE 139 of 1912).
A twenty-ninth year inscription relates to a gift of money de-
posited with the nagarattar (merchant-guild) of Tiruvorriyur
and others, on interest to be given as paddy, for celebrating
the festival of Margali Tiruvadirai and for feeding three men
learned in the Vedas. The money was in units of tulai mrai pon
and Madhurantaka devan madai (ARE 140 of 1912). A gift of one
Rajarajan kasu was deposited with the same nagarattar on interest
payable in paddy, for feeding a brahmana, by one Kuttan Ganavadi
alias Uttamasola Marayan, a military officer of Gangaikondan
(ARE 141 of 1912); the same record also makes reference to a
money gift by one Ariyammai. A record of the twenty-sixth
year mentions that a royal officer, Rajendrasinga Muvendavelan,
made enquiries into the temple affairs in the hall called Vakkanik-
kum mandapam, and fixed the details of the services to be main-
tained out of the kurra-dandam (fines) and “excess paddy” collected
from the temple servants and the tenants of the devadanam
village: the items of expenditure covered included ghee, camphor,
food and clothes for the garland-makers, food and clothes for the
brahmanas who recited the Vedas, rice, sugar, dal, vegetables,
curds, pepper, betel leaves and nuts. Such of these items as were
302
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
not locally available were imported and paid -for in gold, and
the local items in paddy (ARE 146 of 1912). Another inscription
of the twenty-sixth year, found in one of the pillars of the verandah
round the central shrine, mentions that twelve devaradiyars
(women-servants of the temple) were dedicated for the service
of the Goddess Gauri, and the proceeds of the sale of some lands
by the villagers of the devadanam village of Iganaiyur to one
Sattan Ramadeviyar, described as an anukkiyar of the king,
were earmarked for their maintenance (ARE 153 of 1912).
The inscriptions of the days of Rajadhiraja I are equally
numerous. On the south side of the base of the central shrine,
we have his earliest record, dated in his third year (ARE 127 of
1912). It refers to a sale of land by the residents of Veshasharu-
padiyur to a brahmana lady called Ariyavammai, wife of Prabhakara
Bhatta of Megalapura in Arya desa, for the purpose of feeding
the mahesvaras at the Rajendrasolan, evidently a matha, built
by her in the temple premises. An inscription of his sixth year,
found on the south wall of the central shrine, relates to a gift
of 32 cows for a lamp by a devotee called Periyanayan alias
Manikkavasagan (ARE 107 of 1912). There is a twenty-second
year inscription on a pillar of the prakara\ It records a gift
of money for providing daily a bundle of grass to a cow and
for other services (ARE 151 of 1912). A record of his twenty-
sixth year, found on the south wall of the central shrine, registers
an enquiry into the temple affairs by the adhikaris (officers),
Valavan Muvendavelan and Vik(ki)ramasinga Muvendavelan,
in the Mannai-kondasolan mandapa, obviously so named in
commemoration of a Chola victory over the Western Chalukyas
in a.d. 1044 (Mannai = Manyakheta; ARE 103 of 1912). There
are two inscriptions of the 27th year; one of them is incomplete
and contains merely a part of the prasasti beginning with tingaler
tarn ; the other relates to a gift of money by the members of the
assembly of Manali alias Singavishnu chaturvedimangalam, for
the conduct of the Masi-maham festival (ARE 142 and 144 of
1912). On the north side of the base of the central shrine is a
twenty-eighth year inscription recording a gift of money for
special offerings on the day following the Panguni Uttiram festival.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
303
The Assembly of Kavanur alias Kamala-narayana chaturvedi-
mangalam received 30 kasus and agreed to contribute 75 kalams
of paddy as interest every year for the expenses on that day
(ARE 137 of 1912): this record also mentions pattarkal-tirumeni
(images of the nayanmar). A record of his twenty-eight year,
1 34th day is of interest in that it gives details of the administrative
units of the Tondaimandalam region (ARE 102 of 1912): It
registers a sale of land by certain members of the assembly of
Manali alias Singavishnu chaturvedimangalam, a devadana village
of the temple of Tiruvorriyur Udaiyar, to a military officer.
A thirty-first year record, found on one of the prakara pillars,
deals with a gift of 95 sheep for a perpetual lamp to the temple
by Chatural Chaturi, wife ( agamudaiyal ) of Nagan Perungadan,
and a woman-servant of the temple {devaradiyal) , showing in-
cidentally that a devaradiyal could lead a normal married life
(ARE 147 of 1912). Another record of his thirty-first year re-
gisters a sale of land by the Assembly of Sundarasola chaturvedi-
mangalam, a brahmadeya village to Nagalavaichchani alias Ariya-
vammai, wife of Prabhakara Bhatta, a resident of Megalapuram
in Arya desa, and a devotee of this temple: we have already
met with this lady in the third year record. This land was also
given to the Rajendrasolan matha founded by her. This record
also mentions other land-sales, one by the nagaram of Tiruvorri-
yur in the twenty-seventh year of the king (ARE 132 of 1912). A
record of the thirty-third year refers to the king as Rajakesari
Vijaya-rajendra, and relates to a gift of 92 sheep for a lamp by
one Sundara Chola-Pandya Villuparaiyan, a panimagan (servant)
of the temple and resident of Kanchipuram (ARE 149 of 1912).
Finally, we have a record of the thirty-eighth year referring to
a sale of land by the assembly of Kurattur in Ambattur nadu,
a sub-division of Pular kottam, for conducting the daily services
in the temple of Tiruvorriyur udaiyar Karanai Vitanka devar
(ARE 129 of 1912). This name evidently applied to a processional
image (of Siva) : we revert to this subject in our discussion of the
Nataraja shrine below.
References to gifts to temples in the Chola domain by donors
from outside it are rather uncommon. Tiruvorriyur seems to have
304
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
attracted the attention of people of the north country, as the
references to Nimbala devi from Viratadesa and Ariyavammai
from Aryadesa show; the latter also made a gift of 4,000 kulis
of land, from the produce of which a flower garden was to be
maintained and four garlands supplied daily to the temple;
the land so purchased included house sites for the cultivating
tenants, who were also exempted from payment of taxes of any
kind (ARE 155 of 1912).
There are some interesting inscriptions of the short reign
of Vira Rajendra (a.d. 1063-69). Two of them are on the walls
of the Gaulisa shrine, one in the Nataraja shrine, and two others
in the central shrine. From one of the last-mentioned, we learn
that 60 velis of waste land in Simhavishnu chaturvedimangalam
(Manali) were brought under cultivation, and designated
Virarajendra vilagam. Its income in paddy, gold and kasus
was allotted under various items of expenditure “for the health
of the Chakravartin Virarajendradeva, for the increase of his
race, for the prosperity of the tirumangalyam (ornament worn
by women as a symbol of their married state) of the queen and
for the growing health of their children”. The items included:
the pay of two priests engaged in the duties of worship of the
Lord and of the musician who performed at the ceremonial
occasion of “waking up the Lord from sleep”; the conduct of
the Tiruvadirai tirunal, when the image of Karana Vitanka
devar was taken in procession and the Tiruvembavai of Manikka-
vasagar was recited before it; and the maintenance of 22 taliyilar
who danced and sang, their dancing master, four cooks, and
16 devar adiyar (women temple-servants) who recited the Tirup-
padiyam {Devar am) in a low pitch called ahamargam (ARE 1 28 of
1912). From the other inscription in the central shrine (of this
reign), we learn that the weavers of the Jayasinga-kulakala
perunteru made a gift of 120 kasus towards the celebration each
month of the. Aslesha asterism, the king’s natal star. This record
also refers to two officers who held an enquiry into the temple
affairs at the Vakkanikkum mandapa (ARE 128 of 1912). We
deal with the inscription on the Nataraja shrine in our discus-
sion of this shrine.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME 305
There are a number of inscriptions of the Later Cholas and
subsequent ruling dynasties. f
The Central Shrine
The central shrine, dedicated to Adipurisvarar, is apsidal
in shape (from the upanam to the stupi ) and is tri-tala. It faces
east, and consists of a garbhagriha and an antarala. It is built of
black granite, fine-grained and of excellent quality. The five
devakoshtas of the shrine contain images of Ganesa and Dakshi-
namurti in the south, Vishnu in the west, and Brahma and Durga
in the north. There is a colonnaded verandah with a low plat-
form surrounding the shrine ( tiruch-churru-maligai ) ; its pillars
are in two rows, and most of them bear inscriptions of the days
of Parantaka I.
There are a number of subsidiary shrines in the temple.
NATARAJA SHRINE
This shrine, facing south, is to the north-east of the main
shrine, the two having a common mukhamandapa. The devakoshta
■f Some Later Chola Inscriptions : One, of the reign of Kulottunga I, refers to Tiruvorriyur as
Adipura. Another, of the same reign, refers to a revenue division called Kalyanapurangonda-
sota valanadu. Yet another refers to a matha named after Kulottunga, in the temple campus.
An inscription of the days of Kulottunga III refers to a breed of cows called asangada-gandan-
surabhi. Yet another reveals the practice of donating lamp-stands shaped like and named
after the donor. A third refers to the god Vyakarana-dana Perumal, the king himself being
referred to as Ulaguyya Nayanar. Finally, we learn that the Vyakarana-dana-vyakhyana
mandapa was built around the thirty-fifth year of this king, by one Durgaiyandi Nayakan.
Panini’s Vyakarana (Sanskrit grammar) seems to have received considerable attention in
this place. According to tradition, the first i4 aphorisms of that grammar were produced
by Siva from His damaru (kettle-drum), and made a gift of to Panini. Hence the name of
Vyakaranadana Perumal, applied to Siva. The name of a local temple-priest is given as
Vyakaranandana Bhatta. The above hall was presumably set up for the purpose of expound-
ing this grammar.
An inscription of Rajaraja III mentions the “gift” of five women and their descendants
for husking paddy in the temple, by one Vayalurk-kilavan Tiruvegambam udaiyan Sentama-
raikkannan. According to another, the king had occasion to listen to the singing in a low,
deep voice (a style called ahamargam) by one Uravakkina Talaik-koli, one of the padiyilar
(women-singers in a temple), in the Rajarajan tirumandapam, on the night of the eighth day of
the Avanit-tinmal festival. He was so enchanted with it that he passed orders that 60 velis of
land be detached from Manali and be renamed Uravakkina-nallur, as suggested by the
temple trustees (ARE 2n to i9i2).
3°6
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
figures consist of a beautiful and rare image known as Ekapada-
murti (in the north), Brahma and Vishnu. On the base of this
shrine, there is an inscription of the twenty-eighth year of Raja-
dhiraja I (ARE 220 of 1912), which refers to a sale of land for
offerings in the temple of Karanai Vitanka devar at Tiruvorriyur
by the assemblies of Sundarasola and Vanavan Madevi-chatur-
vedimangalams. On the base of the stone pedestal of the Nata-
raja image in the shrine, there is an inscription which records that
the pedestal, called Vira Rajendra, was set up by one Sivaloka-
nathan of Tiruvenkadu (ARE 217 of 1912). An inscription of
the third year of Adhirajendra records a sale of land by the
assembly of Sundarasola chaturvedimangalam to the temple
of Tiruvorriyur Udaiyar (ARE 219 of 1912). On the base of the
shrine again, there are two inscriptions of Kulottunga I, one
of them referring to the shrine of Kumarasvami devar (Subrah-
manyar) in the temple complex (ARE 221 and 222 of 1912).
It thus appears that the present Nataraja shrine is the same
as the Karanai Vitankar shrine of the inscriptions, and came
into existence in the days of Rajadhiraja I, if not earlier; possi-
bly, it received finishing touches in the days of Vira Rajendra.
Was it a Siva shrine converted in later days into a Nataraja
shrine?
GAULISA (. PADAMPAKKA NATAKAR ) SHRINE
This is a small, square, stone structure, situated in the second
prakara of the main shrine and to the south of it. It faces east,
and comprises a garbhagriha and an antarala in front of it. The
presiding deity (or image), now called Gaulisa (or Gaulisvara),
is in thej yoga posture, and is four-armed: the lower right arm
is in the chin-mudra pose, the lower left hand is held parallel
to the ground and close to the torso, with the palm open upwards,
the upper right hand holds a trident (apparently, the upper
part is missing), and the upper left hand holds a bowl. The
devakoshta in the rear (west) houses a fine Vishnu image, and that
in the north, one of Brahma.
The superstructure over the sanctum is modern. Two of the
inscriptions in this shrine belong to the fifth year of Vira Rajendra.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA l’s TIME 3O7
According to one of them (ARE 232 of 1912), this shrine was
built of stone for Padampakka Nay aka deva by one Pasupati
Tiruvaranga devan alias Rajendra Muvendavelan of Manakkudi.
A sale of land to the shrine of Tiruvorriyur udaiya Padampakka
Nayakar by the assemblies of Sundarasola and Vanavan Madevi-
chaturvedimangalams is recorded by the other (ARE 226 of 1912) .
A record of the sixth year of the same ruler is inscribed in conti-
nuation of the above, and relates to a sale of land by the assembly
of Singavishnu chaturvedimangalam to the builder of the shrine,
Pasupati Tiruvaranga devan, for establishing a garden named
after Vira Rajendra. There are two inscriptions of Kulottunga I
as well, in this shrine.
The Cholas of the Middle and Later periods seem to have
been deeply interested in the Saiva cult called the Lakulisa
cult; it is likely that Tiruvorriyur was a strong centre of this
cult during these periods, and that this shrine was dedicated to
to Lakulisa (corrupted in course of time into Gaulisa). In this
connection, we may quote the Government Epigraphist, writing
in the ARE for 1913 (p.103):
“The stone image of Padampakka devar is apparently the
same as that of the present Gaulisvara. It cannot be explained
why Padampakka came to be called Gaulisvara or what Padam-
pakka actually meant . . . (The deity/image) does not correspond
to any of the forms of Siva known to me so far, and leaves it
doubtful whether the image may not be one of Lakulisa of
Karohana (Karvan), with whom the temple of Tiruvorriyur
may have been intimately connected.”
Rajadhiraja II is said to have attended a festival in the shrine;
two gurus , Chaturanana Pandita and Vagisvara Pandita, were
also present on the occasion, and the latter expounded the
Soma Siddhanta (the philosophy of the Kapalika sect of Saivism)
in the royal presence ; later, all the three listened to a discourse
on the life of Sundarar (Aludaiya Nambi).
The Gaulisa shrine also houses a fine image in black granite
of Adi Sankara, shown seated on high pedestal, and his four
disciples, shown sitting cross-legged and in the anjali pose,
at his feet. We have no indication as to where and by whom this
308 middle chola temples
was originally installed.
VATTAPIRAI AMMAN SHRINE
This small stone shrine for the Saptamatrika group, complete
with the guardian deities of Ganesa and Virabhadra, is located
in the first prakara of the main shrine, immediately to the north
of the apsidal (rear) portion of the garbhagriha. The image of Cha-
munda here is considerably bigger than that of any of the others
of the group, the latter being all of one size. Presumably, the
name “Vattapirai Amman” refers to Chamunda here.
SUBRAHMANTAR SHRINE
This lies east of the mukhamandapa of the central shrine (and
of the Nataraja shrine), and also faces east. It is of no great
artistic merit. The only inscription in this shrine is on the south
side of the base and relates to the ninth year of Rajaraja III
(ARE 227 of 1912): it is not a foundation inscription. We do
not know what, if any, the connection is between the present
Subrahmanyar shrine and the shrine of Kumarasvami devar
mentioned in the inscriptions of the temple.
These five shrines constitute the hard core of the temple.
Of the adjuncts, the shrine for Bhairavar is noteworthy: the
Bhairavar image bears a sula in the upper right hand and a
bowl in the upper left — features similar to the Gaulisa image.
(See my Four Chola Temples, p. 31). The shrine is in the second
prakara, to the north-east of the main shrine.
The kalyana-mandapa to the east of the sacred tank, and the
five-storeyed gopuram on the outer wall of enclosure are later
structures.
There are some fine Pallava and Chola sculptures lying loose
in the temple. One of them is a half-buried or broken image
of Kali, now kept in a small, low-roofed modern chamber abutting
on the south wall of the second prakara. It is a fine specimen
of the Middle Chola period, delicately chiselled in black stone.
It has a skull on top of the head, flanked by two snakes rearing
their hoods. A skull-garland draped over the head falls down
to the ears on either side; there is an outsized preta-kundala
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA x’s TIME 309
(corpse-shaped ear-ornament) on the right ear. The upper left arm
carries a kapala in its palm, and the upper right hand carries
a trident. The lower right hand is in the abhaya pose, and the
lower left hangs down, almost unbent, in what is perhaps the
kati-avalambita pose. There is a skull-garland across the torso
in the yajnopavita style, and a kucha-bandha.
Also of the same period are the image of Chandesvarar
found in the front mandapa of the central shrine, the two massive
and magnificent dvarapalas at the entrance from the mukhamandapa
to the first prakara of the main shrine and the Kshetrapalar
image lying loose, all of excellent workmanship.
The temple of Adipurisvarar should be considered one of
the finest specimens built in the days of Rajendra I in Tondai-
mandalam with the distinguishing feature of an apsidal, tri-
tala vimana (Pis 300 to 314).
KULAMBANDAL
JAGANNATHESVARAR TEMPLE
(GANGAIKONDA-CHOLISVARAM) 72
Kulambandal, also sometimes called Kulamandal, is a small
village, 18 kms from Kanchipuram towards the south, on the
Kanchipuram-Vandavasi road. Arpakkam, Kavantandalam,
Magaral, Mamandur and Uttaramerur are all within a few
kilometres from it. Apart from the Siva temple here, there
are also the remains of a Vishnu temple in the west, a Mahavira
image in situ in the south-west, and a Durga image in situ in the
south. The positioning of these temples accords with the re-
quirements of the Agamas and vastu sastra, indicating that, in all
probability, the township was newly laid out in conformity
with those texts.
The Siva temple, now called the Jagannathesvarar temple,
was in a state of disrepair till recently (see the coverage of the
temple in my Four Chola Temples PI 30). It has since undergone
scientific renovation under the direction of R. Nagaswamy of
the Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu.
3io
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
An inscription on its walls, of the twenty-second year of
Rajendra I, reveals that it was built by one Guru Isana Siva
Pandita and was called Gangaikonda-cholisvaram (ARE 414
of 1902: SII, VII, 1047). I* is likely that this guru came of
the distinguished lineage of the Saiva acharyas associated with
the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur. Its construction must have
taken place between the eleventh and twenty-second years of
Rajendra I. For some reason, the temple does not appear to
have received the final finishing touches, as the sculptures of
Dakshinamurti and Vinadhara Dakshinamurti in the third
and second talas indicate.
The temple faces east and consists of an all-stone, tri-tala
srivimana , with an ardhamandapa and a mukhamandapa in front.
There must once have been a wall of enclosure, but only its
basement remains. The garbhagriha is square, and is supported
by an upapitham as well as an adhishthanam , the latter comprising
the padmam and kumudam mouldings, topped by a yali frieze.
The walls of the garbhagriha have six pilasters to a side, massive
and hexagonal, and similar in appearance to the pillars of the
mukhamandapa', above the pilasters are the cornice and a yali
frieze. The walls contain inscriptions of the Chola and Vijaya-
nagara periods. Each of the three free sides contains three
devakoshtas. These niches contain (reckoned in clockwise order)
the following images: Bhikshatanar, Dakshinamurti and Hariharar
in the south; Vishnu, Lingodbhavar and (again) Hariharar in the
west; and Subrahmanyar and Brahma in the north, the third
northern niche being empty; the ardhamandapa niches contain
Durga in the north and a standing Ganapati in the south (See
Damilica, Vol. 1, 1970).
The entablature of the second tala of the srivimana is crowned
by karna-kutas in the four corners and salas in the four cardinal
directions. In the third tala , again, there are karna-kutas in the
four corners, with a pair of Nandis, one on either side of each of
them. The circular griva is decorated with four niche figures
in the cardinal directions. The sikhara is almost spherical with a
concave depression in the lower half running all around. The
tapering upper half of the sikhara is decorated on top with a
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
3* 1
mahapadma. There is no stupi.
There are remnants of the mahamandapa, ahead (to the east)
of the mukhamandapa. It has entrances to the south and east,
flanked by dvarapalas typical of this period. The roof is missing,
but, in the recent restoration, the walls which had partially
collapsed, have been effectively restored up to the vyalavari above
the cornice ; the floor of the mandapa is about a metre above the
ground level, and there are flights of steps and landings at the
two entrances, the entire configuration being reminiscent some-
what of those at the great temples at Tanjavur and Gangaikonda-
solapuram (Pis 315 to 324).
To the east of the mahamandapa was a dislodged nandi, which
has now been restored to its proper position. Further to the
east of the nandi is a big 16-pillared mandapa , of which only a few
pillars and the basement were traceable before the renovation;
the pillars have now been set upright and the platform cleared
of all debris, but there is (still) no roof.
All the other temples and shrines have disappeared without
a trace, except for the debris of a brick garbhagriha which still
contains the magnificent sculptures of Vishnu, Bhudevi and Sri-
devi, benign of aspect and of great artistic merit. The man-sized
Vishnu image measures 175.26 cms (5' 9") in height, and the
pedestal thereof, 30.48 cms (i') ; the corresponding measurements
for either devi image are: 162.56 cms (5' 4") and 22.86 cms (9*).
Immediate steps need to be taken to preserve these images for
posterity, representing as they do the high water-mark of stone
sculpture even within the Chola period itself.
A Durga image was found embedded in a platform and has
been restored. A sculpture of Mahavira is now being taken care
of by the State Department of Archaeology.
The planned disposition here of the Siva, Vishnu and Jina
temples is reminiscent of Olagapuram and Dadapuram, asso-
ciated with Logamahadevi and Kundavai respectively. In
particular, there is considerable similarity between the Vishnu
triad here and that at Olagapuram.
312 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
MANNARKOYIL
GOPALASVAMIN TEMPLE
73 (RAJENDRASOLA VINNAGARAM)
The village of Mannarkoyil is at a distance of about 6.50 kms
(four miles) north of Ambasamudram the headquarters of the
taluk of the same name in Tirunelveli district. There is a huge
Vishnu temple here, currently called the Rajagopalasvamin
temple. During the period of Ghola rule over this part of the
country, however, it bore the name of Rajendrasola Vinnagaram
(after Rajendra I). The principal deity is called Vedanarayanar,
and the consorts Vedavalli and Bhuvanavalli. The utsava-murti
is known as Rajagopalasvamin, whence the temple derives its
present name.
As many as nine inscriptions have been recorded from the
walls of the central shrine of this temple (ARE 106 to 114 of
1905). Five of these relate to the Chola viceroy in the Pandya
country named Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya, a son of
Rajendra I ; four of them are of his fourth, thirteenth, fourteenth
and sixteenth years, and the date of the fifth one is lost. In the
fourth year record itself, the temple is referred to as Rajendra-
sola Vinnagar. In the other records, as well as in one of a Mara-
varman Vikrama Chola-Pandya, two Chera princes, Rajaraja
deva and Rajasimha, are mentioned. These two princes probably
owed allegiance to the Imperial Cholas, confirming the claims
of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I to having conquered the Chera
country. Yet again, in an inscription of the twenty-fourth year
of Rajendra I (ARE 112 of 1905), the temple is called Rajendra-
sola Vinnagar, and is stated to have been built by Rajasimha,
the Chera feudatory, and named after the overlord: the king
makes a grant of land to the temple to take effect from that year
(a.d. 1036), also referred to as the fifteenth year of the Chola-
Pandya viceroy; this fixes the date of accession of the latter (to
this viceroyalty) at a.d. 1021. Thus this temple is a foundation of
the days of Rajendra I and must have been completed in or
before the fourth year of this viceroy, namely, a.d. 1025.
Temples of rajendra i’s time 313
The temple, which dominates the neighbouring landscape,
has an extensive campus and has many fine features. The main
shrine, whose srivimana is tri-tala, consists of a garbhagriha, an
ardhamandapa, a mahamandapa and a mukhamandapa with a wide
courtyard providing a circumambulatory passage. There are
two walls of enclosure and, on the eastern wing of each there
is a gopuram. The garbhagriha and the ardhamandapa (of the ground
floor) constitute a unitary block, measuring on the outside
13-50 ms in length ad 12-32 ms in breadth (making almost a
square), and 4-46 ms in height. The garbhagriha (of the adi-tala)
is of the sandhara type: double-walled, with a narrow passage
going all around the cella of the garbhagriha (the inner and outer
walls being called respectively antara-bhitti and bahya-bhitti) ,
similar to what we fine at the Rajarajesvaram in Tanjavur. The
devakoshtas of the outer wall of the garbhagriha are bereft of sculp-
tures, unlike what we find in the Pallava and Chola country,
but a common feature in the Pandya country.
In the garbhagriha (of the adi-tala), there are standing images
of (Vishnu as) Vedanarayanar in the centre, with His Consorts
Vedavalli and Bhuvanavalli, one on either side, close to the
rear wall. The Lord has the sankha and the chakra in His upper
left and right arms, the lower right arm in the abhaya pose, and
the lower left arm resting on a mace; the image is 1.98 ms high,
reckoning without the padma-pitham. All the three images are
said to be covered with stucco (though made of stone) ; con-
sequently, no abhishekas are performed for them. On the rear
wall, back of these images, there are painted replicas of these
images (with the same insignia and poses of the hands) ; on the
southern and northern walls of the sanctum, there are paintings
of Brahma and of Siva on Mount Kailasa, respectively. In front
of the above images are placed the processional metal images
of Vedanarayanar and consorts (these receive abhishekas ).
The ardhamandapa is supported by eight pillars and on its
north wall, there is a window consisting of 16 square openings.
There are counterparts in the two upper talas for the gar-
bhagriha and the ardhamandapa of the adi-tala, which we shall
call by the same names. The second tala is reached by a
314 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
narrow flight of stairs abutting on, and outside, the southern side
of the common outer wall of the garbhagriha and ardhamandapa,
which takes us to the ardhamandapa of that tala and thence to
the garbhagriha thereof. There are seated stucco images of Vishnu
and His consorts, Bhudevi and Sridevi, on either side of Him, and
icons of Markandeya and Bhrigu-rishi, one on either side of the
triad and facing each other, in the garbhagriha of this tala, and
painted replicas of these images on the rear wall thereof.
Paintings of Brahma, and of Siva on Mount Kailasa adorn the
southern and northern walls (inner surfaces) of the garbhagriha,
respectively.
The (presumably) brick and mortar roof of the garbhagriha
(of this tala ) is supported by wooden beams; the wooden roof
of the ardhamandapa is supported by pillars, two of stone and
the rest of wood, and the wood elements are all beautifully
carved and painted.
Another narrow flight of steps, on the east side of the second
tala, leads to the third tala. The garbhagriha of this (the third)
tala houses an image of Vishnu as Anantasayana, and images
of Sridevi, Bhudevi and of the (same) rishis; there is a painted
replica of this set of images on the west wall of the chamber,
and paintings of Brahma, and of Siva as Tripurantakar on the
southern and northern walls, respectively. The ardhamandapa
roof is (again) of wood, with the pillars (also of wood), beams
and rafters beautifully carved; it is flat in the middle and slopes
downwards at the sides to permit the tapering off of the sikhara
on top.
The superstructure over the third tala, consisting of the
griva and a sala- type (barrel-roofed) sikhara crowned by three
stupis, is of brick and mortar. There are salas on the south, west
and north faces of the third tala, whose koshtas contain images
of Yoga Dakshinamurti, Narasimha and Brahma, respectively.
The same images are repeated in the griva-koshtas as well. There
are no images on the east faces of the sikhara and griva. There are
garuda figures in the four corners of the sikhara.
The mahajnamlapa, a later addition, projects 19.81 ms (65')
forward from the ardhamandapa. It serves also as a snapana-mandapa.
TEMPLES OF RAJENQRA frs TIME
315
It is supported by eighteen beautifully carved pillars, five in each
flank, two each at the east and west edges, and four in the four
corners at an angle to the rest, the whole structure having a
compact appearance.
The ardhamandapa houses a fine set of three bronzes, namely,
the processional deities. They are, from left to right, Sridevi,
Vedanarayanar and Bhudevi. Without the pedestal, the main
image measures 57-15 cms (22.5") in height, the pedestal itself
being 17.78 cms (7") high; the corresponding figures for either
devi image are: 43.18 cms (17") and 13.97 cms (5.5"), respective-
ly. The Vedanarayana image holds the chakra and sankha in the
two upper hands, and the lower arms are held in the varada
and abhaya poses. He wears the upavita, the channavira and the
skandamala besides a variety of other ornaments; each of the
consorts holds a flower (lotus or nilotpda ) in one hand, the other
hand being held in the kati-avalambita pose. In the north-western
comer, there are the following bronzes: (i) Sudarsanam, (it)
Navanita Krishna, seated on a snake-pitham with three coils
and five hoods, and with a ball of butter in his hand, (Hi) Narttana
Krishna, (tv) Sita, (0) Rama with bow and arrow, and (vi)
Lakshmana with bow only.
Again, in the same corner of the same hall, adjoining the
wall, there is a set of bronzes of the Alvars, forming an impres-
sive array indeed. They are: (i) Vishvaksena, seated, with
two hands holding the sankha and the chakra, and the other
two arms held in the abhaya and varaia. poses, (if) Poigai Alvar,
(Hi) Bhutattalvar, (iv) Pey Alvar, (v) Tirumalisai Alvar, (vi)
Kulasekhara Alvar, (vii) Madhura Kavi, (viii) Tondaradippodi
Alvar, (ix) Tirup-pan Alvar, (x) Tirumangai Alvar, (xi) Peri-
yalvar (with hair knotted up near the forehead and holding
a flower-basket in his hand), (xii) Udaiyavar or Ramanuja,
with the tri-dandam, and (xiii) Manavalamuni (without the
tri-dandam ) .
In the mukhamandapa, there is a fine set of tall icons of Rama,
Lakshmana, Sita and Hanuman, said to have been recovered
some time back from a neighbouring well.
The mahamandapa contains some bi'onzes as well, namely,
3 l6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
of the processional deities (under worship) : Rajagopalasvamin,
Andal and Garuda, all on a manjam (high platform). The image
of Rajagopalasvamin* measures 86.36 cms ( 2 ' 10") including
the pitham. Andal holds her right arm in the kati-avalambita pose,
while her left hand holds a nilotpala flower. She has an elegant
top knot of hair in the usual Andal style, to the side of the
head. This image measures 63.50 cms ( 2 ' 1") with the pitham.
Garuda holds his arms in the anjali pose and has a snake draped
over his arms, which are adorned with bahuvalayas among others.
This image is 69.85 cms (2' 3J") high.
To one side of the mahamandapa is a fine sesha-vahana (pro-
cessional serpent-couch), made entirely of cast-copper, which
measures 1.22 ms (4') on the outside from end to end, and 0.86 m
(2' 10") on the inner side of the aureola; the snake-coil is about
1.03 ms (3' 4|") high, while the hood portion measures 0.56 m
(22") from end to end; there are seven hoods.
Kulasekhara Alvar shrine : To the north of the main shrine
and in the same compound, is a Pandyan shrine dedicated to
Kulasekhara Alvar, one of the Vaishnava saints. It was set up
before the fourteenth year of Maravarman Sundara Pandya
Deva, in the first quarter of the thirteenth century'. IHs a small,
compact structure, with the garbhagriha measuring 4.19 ms
(13' 9") square, and the antarala projecting 2.87 ms (9' 5")
forward; the two are surrounded by a tiruch-churru-maligai. The
shrine faces south; it is an eka-tala structure with a griva and
an octagonal, curvilinear sikhara. The garbhagriha walls have
only token niches, with no sculptures in them.
In his Aspects of Temple Architecture (p.119), K.V. Soundara-
rajan refers to this temple (the Gopalasvamin temple) as a
structural temple of the Pandya-Chola period and of a
mixed style, and ascribes it to the tenth century a.d. There
seems to be little evidence for the last conclusion of his. We
have adduced epigraphical evidence above to support the con-
clusion that the temple is definitely of the period of Rajendra I,
and hence of the first quarter of the eleventh century a.d. (1025).
* ‘According to local version, the right arm is in the Mokshahasta pose and the left is in the
Bhogahasta pose’.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I*S TIME 3 1 7
During the period of the Imperial Chola sway over the Pandya
country, the Chola viceroys (who were called Chola-Pandyas)
and the Chola feudatories built a number of temples in the
Pandya country and embellished them with a number of stone
and metal sculptures. Examples of such temples are the Somana-
thesvarar temple at Attur, the Kailasanathar temple at Brahma-
desam, the Tiruvalisvaram temple, the Kailasapati temple at
Gangaikondan, the Pallikondar temple at Tirunelveli, and of
course the present temple. These structures and icons have
certain distinct features. The most noticeable, characteristic
architectural feature is the shallowness of the devakoshtas on the
garbhagriha and ardhamandapa walls and the absence of any
images in them. The metals have oval and angular faces, con-
trasting with the rounded and full faces of the icons in the Chola
country; they have heavy and bulbous (bun-like) hairdo, and
the ridges of the noses are exceedingly thin, giving the impression
of very sharp and pointed noses. These features are so char-
acteristic of the temples of this region that we may postulate a
“Chola- Pandya idiom” in the Dravidian style of temple archi-
tecture and sculpture in this period (Pis 325 to 329).
SITIBETA
BHAIRAVAR TEMPLE 74
Sitibeta (or betta) is a small out-of-the-way village in the
Kolar taluk of Kolar district, and lies about 20 kms north of
the Bangalore-Kolar highway along a district road taking off
from it near the 34-km stone from Bangalore; the terrain for
miles around is undulating and dotted with stark hillocks.
On an isolated hillock here, about 80 to 90 ms high, there
is a temple dedicated to Bhairavar. It contains a number of
inscriptions in Grantha and Tamil characters. The earliest is
dateable to the twelfth regnal year of Rajendra I (a.d. 1024).
Incomplete, it breaks off after referring to “the hill of Sripati. . .
in Nigarilisola (mandalam) alias Nulambapadi” (E.C., X, Kl.44).
Then we have a record of the thirteenth year of Kulottunga I
318
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(a.d. 1083), mentioning that one Virasola Brahmamarayan, the
overlord of Sattanur in Kuvalala nadu, renovated a mandapa
and the pitha of the Kshetrapalar image (ibid., 43). The village
is called Sipati and the deity Sipati Nayanar, in some records
of the thirteenth century a.d. (ibid., 40a, 40b, 41). In a.d. 1279,
a mandapa was built for the god Tribhuvana Vitanka Kshetrapala
Pillaiyar of Sripati, and an endowment made for keeping it in
good repair (ibid., 49). In a.d. 1339, the temple was given the
proceeds of some taxes accruing from the two villages of Sripati
and Kallapalli by a Hoysala chief “for the success of the sword
and arm” of Periya Vallappa Dennanayaka, son of Posala Vira
Vallala deva (ibid., 54). According to a record (a “ dharmasasana ”)
found at the bottom of the hillock, of a.d. 1467, the lands grant-
ed to the temple by Rajendra I and Vira Ballala had fallen
into disuse or been misappropriated; one Narasinga Vodeyar
reactivated these endowments, listed the ceremonies to be per-
formed, endowed the temple with a total of 12 lamps, and set
up a chatra for feeding 218 brahmanas daily (ibid., 33). The
name of the deity is given as Bhairavar of Sihati or Sihatti in two
inscriptions dated a.d. 1468 and 1495 (ibid., 35, 34). The modern
name of Siti (beta) is an easy transition from the above.
The main shrine, which faces east, has an eka-tala srivimana.
The garbhagriha and ardhamandapa, which are original, measure
3.44 ms and 3.70 ms along the axis of the temple, respectively,
and 3.00 ms and 4.35 ms across. There is a later, larger mandapa
in front, measuring 7.65 ms by 7.35 ms.
Two of the three devakoshtas on the garbhagriha walls are
empty; the third devakoshta contains an image of Bhairavar
with upturned hair, profusely adorned with jewellery and a
munda-mala coming down to well below the knees. The niches
are flanked by well-turned circular pilasters, and the walls are
relieved by octagonal pilasters.
At the corners of the platform under the griva, there are
addorsed nandis, and the griva-koshtas house Bhairavar images.
There are no kutas or salas above the entablature. The entire
structure is in stone, with stucco coating and ornamentation.
The stupi is missing.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I 5 S TIME 319
The structural additions to the proper right of the shrine,
comprising halls and partially built-up caves, are of a later date.
Two beautiful metals found in this temple are attributable
to the period of Rajendra I. The Bhairavar image is 60 cms
high (including the fiadma-pitham) , and carries a kettle-drum,
a snake and a skull-plate in three of the hands; the fourth is in
the posture of holding the trident, though bereft of any weapon
now. The Somaskanda group (with Skanda missing, and Siva
and Uma called Sripatisvarar and Parvati locally) is evidently
the work of the same craftsmen; the lion-head ( simha-mukha )
clasp at the waist is reminiscent of the Tripurantakar of the
Tanjavur Art Gallery (Pis 330 to 333).
KOLAR
KOLARAMMA (PIDARIYAR) TEMPLE 75
Kolar is now the headquarters of the district of that name
in Karnataka State, adjoining Chittoor district of Andhra
Pradesh and North Arcot and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.
It is 66 kms (41 miles) from Bangalore along the national
highway to Madras.
Nolambavadi, Nulambabadi or Nunambavadi was the land
of the Nolambas, with the capital at Hemavati in the present
Madakasira taluk of Anantapur district; they had their heyday
during the ninth and tenth centuries a.d. Afterwards, their
kingdom was absorbed in the expanding Chola empire of
Rajaraja I, and became a Chola province under the name of
Nigarihsola mandalam, of which Kuvalalam (modern Kolar)
was an important centre.
There are two important temples in the town itself, one
of Pidari (Chamunda), here called Kolaramma, and the
other of Somesvara; we are concerned with only the former
here.
Rajaraja I and Rajendra I appear to have stationed a con-
tingent of their army in this area under General Uttamasola
Brahmamarayan alias Marayan Aru(l)moli, son of Krishnan
320
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Raman ( alias Narakkan Marayan Jananathanar, of Keralantaka
chaturvedimangalam or Amankudi, in Vennadu, a sub-division
of Uyyakkondan valanadu). This Krishnan Raman was also
known as Mummudisola Brahmamarayan in the days of Raja-
raja I and as Rajendrasola Brahmamarayan (or Brahmadhirajan)
in the days of Rajendra I. He frequently stepped in to ensure
that the royal orders in respect of endowments were duly entered
into the revenue registers (E.C., X, KC, iii & 112a: see
below) .
The earliest inscription in the temple is one of Rajaraja I.
It mentions that a village in Kuvalala nadu in Nigarilisola
mandalam was granted, with effect from the twelfth year of the
king, as a devadana to the temple of Pidariyar at Kuvalalam
in the same nadu {ibid., KC, 106c). An inscription of his
twenty-second year registers that the king made the village
of Araiyur in the same nadu a devadana and made it over to
a Sivabrahmana, who was a priest of the goddess {ibid., K.C.,
1 06b).
There are a number of inscriptions of Rajendra I. Two,
of the eighth and twelfth years, concern gifts for lamps to the
temple {ibid., KC, 106a, 112). Two register royal orders, of
the eleventh and sixteenth years, each assigning a village in the
same (Kuvalala) nadu as a devadana to the temple {ibid., K.C.,
112a, hi). An inscription dateable to a.d. 1030, found on the
lintel of a doorway, mentions that a mandapam in the name of
Rajendra I was erected by a lady called Jakkiyappai, at “the
foot of Sulkal-malai, otherwise called Kanakaparvatam, in the
Kadambanakkai nadu” {ibid., KC, 115). The most important
inscription here of his days is of the twenty-second year; it re-
cords that in pursuance of a royal command, General Uttama-
sola Brahmamarayan (son of General Krishnan Raman) re-
built of stone the brick temple of Pidariyar at Kuvalalam, and
also gifted to it a perpetual lamp, seven “excellent she-buffaloes”
and a lamp-lighter {ibid., Kl., 109a; ARE 480 of 191 1) . It seems
likely that Rajendra I not only did the above rebuilding but
built a new Saptamatrika shrine, adjacent to the mandapa in front
of the original shrine. The images relating to the Yogini cult
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME 321
and others referred to in an inscription* of the second year of
Kulottunga I should be associated with this (new) shrine.
We infer from a fragmentary record of the thirty-fifth year
of Rajadhiraja I alias Vijaya Rajendra that Nigarilisola man-
dalam was renamed Vijaya Rajendra mandalam in his days.
There is also a record of the third year of Rajendradeva (II)
relating to the gift of two perpetual lamps (ibid., K.E., 112b, 107).
The ground plan of the temple complex has a rather strange
look. The main shrine, that of Kolaramma, is to the north of the
campus and faces east. The later, larger shrine faces north,
and the two share a four-pillared mandapa (in front of both).
Both shrines comprise a garbhagriha and an ardhamandapa. The
treatment of the external wall surface parts (such as pilasters) is
identical for the two shrines.
The Kolaramma shrine houses images of the Saptamatrikas
together with Ganapati and Virabhadra, the pride of place
being given to Chamunda, whose image is larger than the rest.
It is to her that the name Kolaramma refers (the Pidariyar of
the inscriptions). To meet the need to accommodate as many
as nine deities, the garbhagriha is oblong; it is supported by a
low upanam and a high adhishthanam consisting of several mould-
ings including a jagatippadai and a tri-patta kumudam ; these mould-
*The second year inscription of Kulottunga I: In this inscription (ibid., KC, 108, 106 d), it is re-
corded that one Ambalavanan Tiruppondaiyar alias Virasikhamani Muvendavelar (presumably
a royal officer) ascertained from the Kannataka Pandita who was conducting the madapattiyam
for the goddess and from the panchacharya pujaris, at an enquiry held in a mandapa of this
temple, that no allotment of the paddy-equivalent had been made until that year to the deities
and the temple servants, out of the revenue in gold ( madai ) collected from the devadana villages
of the temple. He issued orders prescribing the equivalent (577 madais and three mahanis equi-
valent to 1034 kasus equivalent to 2,834 kalams and odd of paddy). The record also lists the
various deities for whose worship and for offerings to whom detailed provision was made from
out of the above: the saptamatrikas with Ganapati and Virabhadra, Cbamundesvari of the
midasthana , Yogesvari, Kshetrapala deva, Maha Sasta and Surya deva; also mentioned are
Astra deva, 10 Kumbha-devatas and Nava graha devatas. Provision was made for the offer-
ing of intoxicating drinks as part of the worship of Yogesvara and Yogini. Elaborate provision
was made for the various temple servants (the Kannataka Pandita, priests and musicians,
watchmen, gardeners, garland-makers, drummers and bell-ringers, an accountant, a danc-
ing master and 24 dancing women, and various artisans) and for feeding physically handi-
capped persons. Among the other beneficiaries listed, we find : four brahmacharins, four yoginis
four yogesvaras, three bhairavas and a leader, and a lecturer on vyakarana and yaamala the pujari
and the masons. (Also see my Early Chola Temples, pp. 147-8.)
322
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
ings and the garbhagriha walls are covered with inscriptions.
There is an animated bhutagana frieze below and a lion frieze
above the cornice. The superstructure consists of a high griva
and a sala- type sikhara (Pis 334 to 337).
The other shrine houses stucco images of the Saptamatrikas,
much bigger than those of the main shrine; its ardhamandapa,
which is supported by a row of four pillars, contains a life-size
figure of a female deity; there is no superstructure over the
garbhagriha.
The two shrines and the mandapa common to them are sur-
rounded by a prakara and a tiruch-churru-maligai. The entrance
to the temple-complex is on the east wall, but is not in line
with the axis of the main shrine. Both the shrines can be
approached only through the prakara. At the entrance to the
main shrine (from the common mandapa ), there are two stone
sculptures, Bhairavar on the left and Bhairavi (?) on the right.
BELATURU
76 BANESVARA TEMPLE
Belaturu in Mysore district of Karnataka State would appear
to have been a prosperous town in olden days, with a number of
temples and a sizable trading activity. Today it is a remote village,
reached with difficulty from the main district road connecting
Mysore to Heggada-devankotte, the taluk headquarters; at the
forty-fifth km from Mysore on this road, a five km link road
branches off to the south-east, crossing the Kapini river over a
newly constructed causeway to reach Belaturu. The village itself
is on the Kapini and set in picturesque surroundings.
There are three temples here, those of Mallesvara, Kalamma
and Banesvara. There is yet another in the vicinity, in Addakatta
hola, called the Binakalamma temple.
The Banesvara temple is in ruins. On a stone lying at the site,
there is an early Kannada inscription dated in Saka 943 and the
ninth regnal year of Rajendra I. It says that Oreya (the chief?)
of Nugunad had the temple, which had broken down and fallen
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME 323
level with the ground, rebuilt, and the Linga which had been
pulled out, re-installed, in that year; and one Basavayya, son
of Muruga Setti and Maggabe of the same place, performed the
Rudra homa , feasted a thousand people, and “casting forth the
ball, completed the work of merit”. The same Basava Setti, along
with one Jayangondasola Permmadi Gavunda, son of Javani
Gavunda of Belatur, presented to the temple with the knowledge
of the village elders, 15 units of wet land and five units of land
for a flower-garden (the unit being called a “plough”). He also
gifted land for a perpetual lamp (EC, IV, Pt. II, My., 16).
Another slab here contains an incomplete inscription dated
in Saka 955 and the twenty-second year of Rajendra I, referred
to as the conqueror of Purvadesam, Ganga and Kadaram.
A third slab, found near the temple, contains an inscription
of the days of the Hoysala Vira Ballala, son of Vira Narasimha,
which mentions that this temple was again reconstructed by a
local Chief at a cost of 60 gadyana in cash together with 470
saliga of rice to the stone-masons. The date of this renovation may
be taken to be a.d. 1219.
When the temple-site was visited by the author, 75 years
after the estampages of the above inscriptions were taken by
Rice, there was nothing left of the temple but a mound of stone
rubble densely covered with vegetation; the Lingam was half-
buried in the ground. The foundation inscription of Rajendra I
was located with difficulty; a Saptamatrika panel was found
at the site.
SUTTURU
MULASTHANAM UDAIYAR TEMPLE 77
The village of Sutturu in Mysore district of Karnataka State
is reached from the taluk headquarters of Nanjangud via Kaulan-
dai and is at a distance of 10 kms from the latter. There are three
temples in this village, namely, the Somesvara, Virabhadra and
Mulasthanam Udaiyar temples. Of these, the Somesvara temple
belongs to the Hoysala period. South of the Virabhadra temple,
324
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
there is an inscribed stone containing a long record dated in the
thirty-first regnal year of Rajendra I. We learn from it that a
temple, merely termed that of Mulasthanam Udaiyar, was
constructed by one Gundabbe, wife of Marayya Setti, in the
village of Srotriyur, in the year a.d. 1043. Their son Devayya
Setti is also said to have made extensive grants for the temple
and for services to the deity as well as to the Isana Isvaram Udai-
yar(?) of the same village (EC, IV, My., Nanjangud 164).
NANDIGUNDA
78 MALLESVARA TEMPLE
Nandigunda, also in Mysore district, is about three kms from
the Narasambhudi cross-roads, which is itself six kms from
Nanjangud. There is a small temple here dedicated to Malladeva
or Mallesvara. On a stone lying in front of this temple, there is
an inscription of the days of Rajendra I dated in Saka 943 (a.d.
1021), beginning with the usual introduction of tirumami
valara. According to it, one Malla Gavunda of Nandigunda in
Maisur nad, along with Eremma and Kumbhayya, set up the
deity of Mallesvara and he also made a land-grant to the temple.
This temple must thus have come into existence sometime before
a.d. 1021.
CHIKKA HANSOGE
79 JINA BASTI (RAJENDRASOLA JINALAYAM)
The small village of Chikka Hansoge in Yedatore taluk,
Mysore district was an important Jaina centre in the past. Of the
many Jina temples in the area, we are here concerned only with
the one called the Jina basti [basti— temple). Above its
doorway, there are two short inscriptions in Grantha and Tamil
characters, running as follows (EC, V, My, Yedatore, 21 & 22):
“Sri Rajendra Cholan... Jinalayam desigganam basadi
pustaka-gachcham” ,
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
325
and
“Sri Vira Rajendra Nanni Changalva Devarmmadisiddha
pustaka-gachchada basadi.”
These lead us to infer that this Jaina temple was built during
the reign of Rajendra I and that a local chief named Vira Rajen-
dra Nanni Changalva deva (caused to be) built the pustaka-
gachcha in the basadi ( basti ).
The same chief also erected another Jina temple, according
to another inscription. It thus appears that this area was a strong
Jaina centre even as late as the twelfth century a.d.
KALIDINDI
(i) RAJARAJESVARAM 80
(ii) UTTAMA-CHODA-CHODAKON TEMPLE
(iii) UTTAMA-CHODA-MILADUDAIYAN TEMPLE
The village of Kalidindi which continues to bear its ancient
name, is situated on the eastern fringe of the Colair (Kolleru)
lake in the Kaikalur taluk of Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh
and is not more than 80 kms (50 miles) from Vijayawada-on-
Krishna.
Three temples were built in this village in memory of three
famous Chola generals sent by the Chola emperor Rajendra I
to the assistance of the Vengi ruler and Viceroy to defend the
province from the intrusions of the Western Chalukyas. A fund
of information about these temples and the circumstances under
which they came to be built is furnished by the Kalidindi grant
(El, XXIX, Pt III, July 1951, pp. 57-61) of the Eastern Chaluk-
yan ruler Rajaraja I (Saka 944= a.d. 1022), son of Vimaladitya,
whose marriage with Kundavai, the sister of Rajendra I, is
mentioned in the plates. The son of this wedlock Rajaraja,
“while still a boy, was invested with the necklace ( kanthika ),
the insignia of the office of Yuvaraja” and “his uncle, the Chola
emperor Rajendra Choda Madhurantaka, having heard of his
great qualities bestowed on him with affection the hand of his
daughter Ammanga who became his chief queen.” Rajaraja I
326 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
ruled over Vengi for over forty years, the date of accession of
his nephew and successor Saktivarman II being a.d. 1061.
The pattern of intermarriage ran over three generations: Raja-
raja I gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to the Vengi
ruler Vimaladitya; Rajendra I gave his daughter Ammanga
in marriage to Vimaladitya’s son Rajaraja I (of Vengi); and
Rajendra II gave his daughter Madhurantaki in marriage to
Vengi Rajaraja I’s son Rajendra who later on ascended the
Chola throne as Kulottunga I in a.d. 1070. In these repeated
alliances, the Chola rulers sought to provide a permanent bond
by which Vengi might be attached to their kingdom as an integral
part.
The circumstances under which these generals fought and
died are not clearly brought out in the plates. From a Western
Chalukya record at Hottur in the old Mysore region of Karnataka
State dated Saka 929 (a.d. 1007) we get the name of a Dandana-
yaka of the Western Chalukyan king Jayasimha II, named
Chavanarasa, who bore the title of “the destroyer of the pride
of the fort of Bijavadi”; we may reasonably identify Bijavadi
with Vijayawada of the present day, and thus the Karnataka
invasion of Andhra (i.e. Vengi) and the battle mentioned in the
Kalidindi plates might have taken place during the same Western
Chalukyan expedition under Chavanarasa, particularly when
we keep in mind that Kalidindi is not more 80 kms (50 miles)
from Vijayawada; presumably the combined forces of Vengi
and the Cholas were worsted or the engagement was indecisive;
of this we get indirect confirmation from the fact of Rajaraja I
(of Vengi) being deprived of the Vengi throne in a.d. 1031 by
his step-brother and rival Vijayaditya VII. Possibly, the Western
Chalukyas supported the cause of Vijayaditya and the Cholas
that of Rajaraja I. We may presume with some reason that the
battle was fought in or near Kalidindi itself and that the memorial
temples were built near where the generals fought and fell.
From the Plates we come to know that “the general Rajaraja
Brahma-maharaja rose to eminence by the grace of king Rajendra
Chola Madhurantaka and guarded his kingdom like a serpent pro-
tecting hidden treasure. No sooner did he receive the orders of his
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
327
sovereign, than he marched into the Andhra country at the head of
a vast army, accompanied by two other generals, Uttama Choda
Chodakon and Uttama Choda Miladudaiyan. The three Tamil
generals, who were like the three (Vedic) fires bent upon the
destruction of the forest which was the Karnataka army, became
engaged in a fierce battle with the commanders of the king of
Karnataka.” The battle between the two armies is described
vividly in the Plates (lines 85-93). The engagement, however,
seems to have been indecisive or at any rate did not result in
a victory for the Chola forces ; for it is said that the commanders
of both the sides perished with their forces.
It is in these circumstances that the Eastern Chalukyan
Rajaraja I set up, in memory of Rajaraja Brahmamaharaja, a
temple dedicated to Siva, called Rajarajesvaram in the village
ofKalidindi. Two other Siva temples were also built, in memory
of Uttama Chola Cholakon and Uttama Chola Miladudaiyan.
The relevant portion of the record reads as follows :
Kalidindi grame rajarajesvaram iti Sivayatanam akaravam: Uttama
Sodach Chodagon iti Uttama Choda-Milad Udaiyan iti prasiddha-
vanyav-api-chodisya Sivayatana-dvayam (karomi)”
Not much is known of these generals who were killed in the
battle. One of them, Uttama Chola Milaludaiyan figures as
the ruler of the area now falling under the South Arcot district
of Tamil Nadu as gleaned from a record of the fourth year of
Rajendra I where he is spoken of as the Yadava Bhima of the
Bhargava gotra; but nothing more is known about him. Of the
other two, little is known.
The provocation for the Kalidindi grant was the need to
provide for the conduct of worship and services and the cele-
bration of festivals in these three memorial temples. Three villages,
Kalidindi, Kadaparru and Avakuru, all situated in the Pallau
(lower) Gudravara vis hay a were granted by the Vengi ruler
Rajaraja I in favour of these three temples. Provision was also
made for the maintenance of a sala for feeding fifty students
( Pampasach-chhatranam , fine 1 99) . The boundaries of Kalidindi are
given in detail from which we gather that Kadaparru was
contiguous to Kalidindi, and to its west. The boundaries of
328
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Avakuru are not definitely known, but since Kadaparru is given
as one of the adjoining villages, the three villages must have been
close to one another. Two of the three villages which form the
object of the grant, Kalidindi and Avakuru, retain their names
to the present day and as observed earlier, are situated in a
south-easterly direction not far from the Colair lake in the Kaika-
lur taluk of the Krishna district. The third village of Kadaparru
cannot be traced in the present day records. Kalidindi and
Kadaparru were clubbed together in the record and named
Madhurantakanallur, after a surname of Rajendra I.
Of the three temples, only one, the Rajarajesvaram, survives,
even though in a dilapidated condition. It is in the vicinity of the
village of Kalidindi and consists of a mere cella in laterite, with
granite stone facing. Of the ardhamandapa only the plinth in
granite remains. A nandi and a dvajastambha are in front of the
shrine. A second temple is about three kms in a westerly direction,
set amidst fields and has been rebuilt out of recognition in recent
times. The third temple was not traceable.
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA i’s TIME
329
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(A.D. 985-1070)
HISTORIC AL. SURVEY
Temples of Rajaraja Ps Time (A.D. 985-1014)
Regnal Tear A.D. Name of the place and temple Inscriptional reference
3 yr-
988
5
Tiruchchengattangudi
Ganapatisvarar
58 of 1913 & 56 of 1913
3 yr-
988
12
Tirukkaravasal
Kannayiranathar
453 of 1908
3 yr-
988
18
Olagapuram
Siva temple
129 of 1919
5 yr-
990
•5
Tirurnangalam
Parasuramesvaram
250 of 1949-50
7 yr.
992
4
Alagadriputtur
Svarnapurisvarar
283 of 1905
8 yr.
993
14
Tirunedungalam
Ganapati shrine
683 of 1901
10 yr.
995
22
Emapperur
Vedapurisvarar
522 of 1921
10 yr.
995
44
Tiruppudaimarudil
Narumbunadar
123 of 1905
1 1 yr.
996
47
Tiruvalisvaram
Tiruvalisvarar
1 16-1 19 of 1905
12 yr.
997
6
Tiruviramesvaram
Ramanadeesvaram
1 19-1920 of 1901
13 yr.
998
7
Tirukkadaiyur
Amritaghatesvarar
242 of 1925
330
Regnal Year
A.D.
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Name of the place and temple Inscriptional reference
14 yr.
999
33
Kalakkattur
Agnisvarar
127 of 1923
15 yr.
1000
20
Agaram
Abhiramesvarar
369 of 1922
15 yr-
1000
53
Malur
Kailasanathar
EC, IV, CN, 92
16 yr.
1001
8
Tiruppugalur
Konapiran
47 of 1927-28
16 yr.
100 1
17
Marakkanam
Bhumisvarar
23 of 1919
16 yr.
1001
28
Tiruvakkarai
Sivalokanathar
200 of 1904
18 yr.
1003
45
Ambasamudram
Erichcha Udaiyar
98 of 1907
18 yr.
1003
3i
Arpakkam
Adikesava Perumal
139 of 1923
19 yr-
to
25 yr.
1004
to
1010
1
Tanjavur
Rajarajesvaram
SII, II, 1
21 yr.
1006
2
Tiruvaiyaru
Vadakailasam
SII, V, 517
21 yr.
1006
10
Nagapattinam
Chulamani Viharam
E.I.XXII
2i yr.
1006
35
Tirumalai
Kundavai Jinalaya
SII, I, 66
21 yr.
1006
26, 27
Dadapuram
Siva and Vishnu temples
8 & 17 of 1929
Lalit Kala Nos 15 & 14
TEMPLES OF RAJENDRA I’s TIME
331
Regnal Year
21-23 yr.
22 yr.
23 yr.
24 yr.
24 yr.
&
25 yr-
25 yr.
26 yr.
26 yr.
27 yr.
28 yr.
29 yr.
29 yr.
A.D. Name of the place and temple
1006
to
1008
1007
1008
1009
1009
&
1010
1010
IOI I
IOII
1012
IOI3
1014
IOI4
37
Attur
Somanathisvarar
&
Pallikondar shrine
13
Narttamalai
Ti mmalaikkadflm hnr
52
Malur Patna
Jayangondasola
Vinnagar
41
Seramadevi
Ramasvami temple
3
Tiruvalanjuli
Bhairavar temple
9
Nagapattinam
Nagaikkaronam
21
Mambakkam
Murugesvarasvamin
39
Gangaikondan
Kailasapari temple
32
Solapuram
Rajarajisvaram
42
Seramadevi
Ammanathesvarar
34
Sengunram
Jayangonda Cholisvaram
36
Melpadi
Arinji (gai) -is varam
Inscriptional reference
388 of 1929-30
4:5 of 1929-30
Pudukkottai Insc. No. 91
E.C. IV, CN 129
513 of 1911 and
E.C. IV CN. 132
1 80 of 1895
SII, VIII, 234
165 of 1956-7
19 of 1934-5
160 of 1895
SII, V, 724
SII, VIII, 7 (421 of
1902)
192 of 1895
149 of 1921
86 of 1889
332
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
HISTORICAL SURVEY
Temples of Rajendra I (a.d. 1012-1044)
Regnal Tear
A.D.
Name of the place and temple
Jnscriptional reference
2 yr. to
IOI4
58
6 yr.
to
1018
Tiruppattur (Tiruppidavur)
Ayyanarkoyil
587 of 1908 (6 yr.)
3 Y r -
1015
57
Uttattur
Siddharatnesvarar
515 of 1912
7 yr-
1019
62
Ramanathan koyil
Panchavan Madevi Isvaram
27: of 1927
8yr.
8 yr.to
1020
69
Agaram (Chingleput)
Kailasanathar
75
232 of 1930-31
22 yr.
1020 to
Kolar
E.C.X. KC 1 08
1034
Kolaramma temple
(106, b, c, d;
112a and 111)
9 yr.
1021
76
Belaturu
Banes vara
(E.C. IV, Pt. II, Mys., 16)
9 yr.
1021
78
(Saka 943)
Nandigonda
Mallesvara
E.C. V
10 yr.
1022
(Saka 944)
80
Kalidindi
Memorial temples
E.I. XXIX, Pt 3
12 yr.
1024
74
Sitibeta
Bhairavar temple
(E.C.X KL44)
14 yr.
70 d.
1026
61
Tirumaluvadi
Vaidyanathasvamin
(rebuilt)
91 of 1895
cc
1030
64
Tiruvarur (3-20 yrl
Thyagaraja
680 of 1919
(18 yr., iggd.)
Regnal Tear
22 yr.
24 yr.
3 1 yr-
temples of rajendra i’s time 333
A.D. Name of the place and temple Inscriptional reference
1034
1036
1043
72
Kulambandal
Gangaikondasolisvaram
73
Mannarkoyil
Gopalasvamin
77
Suttur
Mulasthana udayar
63
Tiruvaiyaru
Tenkailasam
7i
Tiruvorriyur
Adipurisvarar
56
Gangaikondasolisvaram
414 of 1902
(SII, VII, 1047)
1 12 of 195
E.G. Mys.
Nanjangud Tlk., 164
NB: Battle of Hottur — 1007 a.d. (Rajendra as Yuvaraja)
5
Successors of Rajendra I
(A.D. 1018 to 1070)
(i) Rajadhiraja I
(a.d. 1018-1054)
Rajadhiraja I was the eldest son. of Rajendra I and was bom
under the star Pusam or Puna Phalguni. From a.d. 1018 till
his father’s death, he served as Tuvaraja and won for his father
many a battle ; in turn he associated his younger brother Rajendra-
deva (II) as his co-regent for two years prior to his own death
in a.d. 1054. His inscriptions begin with the historical intro-
duction “tingaler peruvalar tingaler taru tirukkodiyodu thyagak-kodiyum ” .
Soon after his accession, he had to engage himself in putting down
the rebellion in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) . The strength of the Chola
army in the island at this time was about 95,000; between a.d.
1017 and 1029, Vikramabahu, the Sri Lanka king, was the
leader of this revolt. Several wars were fought in the south-eastern
part of the island and the Lanka rulers were helped by certain
North Indian princes from Ayodhya and Kanauj. Though the
Cholas were successful, the war went on till Kitti alias Vijaya
made himself the leader of the freedom movement and ultimately
succeeded in overthrowing the Cholas about the time of Kulot-
tunga Fs accession in a.d. 1070.
On the north-western boundary too, the Western Chalukyas
were restive. Between a.d. 1044 and 1054, the Chola army invaded
the Western Chalukyan kingdom, destroyed the palace at Kampili,
SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I
335
sacked the city of Pundur on the left bank of the river Kris hna ,
defeated and took prisoner several vassals of the Western Chaluk-
yan ruler Ahavamalla Somesvara I and set up a pillar of victory
with the tiger crest; then the victorious Chola army marched to
the capital city of Kalyanapura, sacked the city and there Rajadhi-
raja I celebrated his virabhisheka assuming the title of “ Vijaya
Rajendradeva” . It was on this occasion that a sculpture of a dvara-
pala belonging to Kalyani (Kalyanapura) was taken away from
there as a war trophy; the sculpture bears the inscription: “Svasti
Sri Udaiyar Sri Vijaya Rajendradevar Kalyanapuram erittu kodu-
vanda dvarapalakar” . This trophy brought by the king was found
till recently in the front platform of the eastern gopuram of the
Airavatesvarar temple at Darasuram: it has since been removed
to the Art Gallery at Tanjavur. An incorrect and thoroughly
distorted and confused picture of this event is given by H. Goetz
in his book India (pp. 173-176 — Art of the World Series). He
states: “Only the temple of Darasuram forms an exception to
some degree. But it had been erected to house an idol looted
by prince Vijayarajendra after the victory of Rajadhiraja I over
Somesvara I Ahavamalla from the Western Chalukyan capital
of Kalyanapuram (Kalyani) and it was therefore decorated with
relics of Western Chalukyan style, and even some original dvara-
pala statues from the destroyed enemy temple.” It is obvious that
Goetz has very little knowledge of South Indian History and Art.
Vijayarajendra was only a title of Rajadhiraja I, which he
assumed after his sack of Kalyanapura and the celebration of his
victory there. He belonged to the first half of the eleventh century
(a.d. 1018-54). The Darasuram temple was a Later Chola temple
built in the second half of the twelfth century by Rajaraja II
(a.d. 1 146-73), more than a hundred years later. It is therefore
wrong to state that this temple “houses an idol looted from
Kalyanapura” and that it was decorated with “relics of Western
Chalukyan style”. What ignorance and distortion of facts!
On his return to Gangapuri, the capital, Rajadhiraja I per-
formed an asvamedha yajna.
In the fourth year of Rajendradeva II, there is a reference
to a fierce battle fought at Koppam between the Cholas and the
336
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Western Chalukyas; and the Chola king Rajadhiraja I, helped
by his brother Rajendradeva, led the battle. The king was in the
thick of the fight, leading the battle himself, and made a great
advance against the Chalukyan forces. From inscriptional
material, it is gathered that the Chalukyan forces concentrated
on the elephant carrying the king; the enemy’s arrow struck the
head of the royal elephant and the king himself was wounded
mortally; he succumbed to the injuries and, as the inscription
euphemistically puts it, he “went up into the sky and became a
sojourner in the land of Indra, where he was welcomed by the
celestial nymphs”. The Chalukyan army, jubilant over the fall
of the Chola king, redoubled its assault on the Chola army; it
was at this perilous hour for his side that the undaunted Rajendra-
deva entered the thick of the battle and turned what would have
been a tragic rout into a resounding victory; he mounted an
elephant and plunged into battle, gathering the Chola army in
disarray into a powerful phalanx; and, despite his being wounded
in the thigh and shoulders and his elephant’s forehead being
pierced by the enemy’s arrows, he killed many Chalukyan
Generals on the battlefield, including Jayasimha, brother of
Ahavamalla, and, with his wounds still fresh, crowned himself
emperor on the battlefield — a most unusual coronation indeed!
He set up a jayastambha at Kollapuram (Kolhapur) and returned
triumphantly to Gangapuri, the capital.
In many ways, Rajadhiraja I holds a unique position in
Chola military history; commencing his career as a General
even in the days of his grandfather, he had distinguished himself
in many a battle against the Cheras, the Pandyas, the Ceylonese
and the Western Chalukyas, in a manner equalled by few others
even among the mighty Chola race. After his long and dis-
tinguished military career of about fifty years, it almost seems
apt that he should have crowned it with a heroic death on the
battlefield.
In spite of his being almost constantly engaged in wars,
he seems to have found time for benefactions to temples in the
later years of his reign. We have already referred to a twenty-
seventh year record of his at Tiruvarur, making provision for
SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I
337
offerings to the images of his father and Anukkiyar Paravai
Nangaiyar, and to a 31st year record at the same place, ordering
the erection of a golden pavilion for Vithi Vitanka devar. A
record of his twenty-ninth year at Tiruvenkadu (ARE 114 of
1896: SII, V, 978) mentions his gift of some land as tax-free
devadana to an Ardhanarisvarar image (Pis 350 and 351) in the
temple of Tiruvenkadu Udaiyar; the order was issued when he was
seated (on the sopana in the north wing of the Gangaikondasolan
maligai in the palace at the capital. In his thirty-fifth year, the village
of Tiruvadandai was given as a devadana to the Varaha temple
(of Mahavishnu) in the village, and the income from certain
dues ordered to be spent on a festival every month on the day
of his asterism, Purva Phalguni (ARE 258 of 1910: also see Early
Chola Temples , pp. 203-7) • ^e same year, land for the wages
of two gardeners, entrusted with a flower-garden in his name,
was gifted to the Tirukkolambiyur temple (ARE 45 of 1925).
Again in the same year, the village called Sarvatirthanallur was
granted as a tax-free devadana for worship and offerings to the
temple of Sarvatirtham Udaiya Mahadevar at Kanchipuram by
the king, seated on the throne called Pallavaraiyan in the western
outer mandapam of his palace at Gangaikondasolapuram (ARE
420 of 1925). The most important cultural event of his reign was
the setting up of a Vedic college at Tribhuvani, in his thirtieth
year. (PI 349, Tiruvenkadu : Bhikshatanar) .
(2) Rajendra Deva II
(a.d. 1052-64)
Rajendra deva II was (also) a great hero, who turned the
impending rout and disaster at Koppam into a great victory
and crowned himself emperor on the battlefield. Jayangondar’s
Kalingattupparani describes this coronation thus: “ Koppaiyir peru
kalattiley mudi kavittavan” . After this victory, he carried a huge
booty including the Chalukyan queens, the royal treasures,
elephants and horses of the Western Chalukyas to his palace at
Gangapuri, where he celebrated a virabhishekam . His prasastis
338
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
start with one of three historical introductions. One of these begins
with “ Irattaipadi elarai ilakkamum kondu ” and mentions his con-
quest of Kollapuram and the erection of a pillar of victory there.
The other two historical introductions begin with “tirumagal
maruviya sengol vendan ” and “tiru madu puviyenum ” .
According to the Muvar ula (Vikrama Cholan Ula, stanza
20), he captured a thousand elephants of the Chalukyas at
Koppam with the help of the single elephant he rode:
"... parr alar ai veppat tadugalattu vezhanga laayiramum koppat
torugalirraar kondonum ” .
The most important event of his reign was the continuing
war with the Western Chalukyas. An engagement took place
at Mudakkaru (winding river) sometime before his ninth regnal
year (a.d. 1061) and it appears that the king himself, Raja
Mahendra the heir-apparent, and the king’s brother Vira Rajen-
dra all participated in it. The Chalukyas were again defeated.
The marital relations between the Vengi and the Tanjavur
houses were further strengthened, by the marriage of Rajendra
deva IPs daughter Madhurantaki to the son of Rajaraja Narendra
of the Eastern Chalukyas, viz., Rajendra II or Rajiga who later
on ascended the Chola throne with the title of Kulottunga (I)
in a.d. 1070 (See genealogical table below).
Rajendra deva II made an endowment, yielding 120 kalams
of paddy, for the enacting of the drama “Rajarajesvara nata-
kam” at the Sri Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur (sixth
year, ARE 55 of 1893; SII, II, 67): this drama was possibly
a depiction of the glory of the temple of the Rajarajesvaram.
The royal order was issued to provide a tuni of paddy daily to
Santik-Kuttan Tiruvalan Vijayarajendra Acharyan and his
descendants, for staging the Natakam during the great Vaigasi
festival of the Lord. The annual allowance of 120 kalams of paddy
was to be given out of the temple treasury.
During his days, one of his local feudatories, Miladudaiya
Narasingapanmar, rebuilt of stone the Ulagalanda Perumal
temple at Tirukkovalur.
SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 339
Cholas of Tanjavur Eastern Ghalukyas of Vengi
1 n
Kundavai (Sr) Rajaraja I
I
I I.
Rajendra I Kundavai (Jr) = Vimaladitya— Medeva
| Mahadevi
I (also a Chola
princess)
Rajendra Deva II Ammanga= Rajaraja Vijayaditya VII
devi | Narendra
~ I I
Madhurantaki= Rajendra II (Chalukya)
(Kulottunga Chola I)
R aj asundari = Raj araj a (Eastern Ganga)
There are some interesting references to the various royal
relatives who held high posts under Rajendra deva II. There were
as many as thirteen — a paternal uncle, four younger brothers, six
sons and two grandsons. They were provincial governors among
others and held such titles as Ghola-Pandyan, Chola-Gangan etc.
(3) Raja Mahendra
(a.d. 1060-63)
Raja Mahendra, the heir-apparent of Rajendra deva II,
appears to have died even during his father’s lifetime. He is said
to have made a gift of a jewel to Lord Ranganatha at Srirangam
as also a “serpent-bed” studded with precious stones; one of the
streets of that town was also named after him as Raja Mahendran
Tiruvidi. His participation in the campaign against the Western
Ghalukyas has already been mentioned.
His prasasti commences with “tirumagal vilanga virunila madan-
daiyai
340
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(4) Vira Rajendra
(a.d. 1062-1070)
Vira Rajendra, also known as Vira Chola, ascended the
throne in a.d. 1062-63 in succession to his brother Rajendra
deva II, since the latter’s son Raja Mahendra had pre-deceased
his father. His natal star was Aslesha ( Ayilyam ). It appears that
the Western Chalukyas had become an obsession with the Cholas
and it is a strange fact of history that all the three sons of Rajendra I
were preoccupied most of the time in containing this powerful
enemy' the death of Rajadhiraja I in battle and the bitter memory
of Rajendradeva II having had to crown himself on the battle-
field of Koppam would seem to have haunted the Cholas for
years. Hardly had Vira Rajendra been on the throne when the
Western Chalukya Somes vara I challenged his authority, and
there were as many as five bitter engagements between them
(“ ahavamallanai aiymmadi ven-kandu ” — SII, VII, 887). In the first
engagement, which occurred immediately after his coronation,
Vira Rajendra defeated Vikramaditya, the younger son of
Somesvara I and drove him across the Tungabhadra. The second
engagement was brought about by an attempt of the Western
Chalukyas to overrun the Eastern Chalukya territory of Vengi ;
coming to know that a large army of the Western Chalukyas under
the command of Mahadandanayaka Chamundarayan, the
Viceroy at Vanavasi, had been despatched with the above
purpose, Vira Rajendra intercepted him in Vengi nadu and
saved Vengi for the Eastern Chalukyas, killing Chamundaraya
in the process. The third battle fought at Kudal Sangamam
was a real trial of strength (a.d. 1064), but the Chalukyas were
again routed. The fourth engagement took place on the banks of
the Tungabhadra (possibly also at Kudal Sangamam) in a.d.
1066. Again, the Chalukyan army was badly mauled, and seven
Chalukyan Generals and their allies, the kings of the Gangas,
the Nolambas, the Kadavas and the Vaidumbas, all suffered
decapitation. This disgraceful defeat infuriated Somesvara I to
such an extent that he threw a written challenge to Vira Rajendra
SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I
341
to engage him in battle again at the same place on a specified date,
adding that “whoever did not come to the appointed field through
fear should thereafter be no king but an outcaste”. Vira Rajendra
appears to have jumped at this challenge and marched for the
Tungabhadra banks and set up camp there one month ahead of
the scheduled date, at Kandai (Karandai?) near Kudal (-Sanga-
mam) and waited for the enemy. For reasons not clear, the enemy
army did not turn up at all on the appointed date. (One version
is that Somesvara I became critically ill, having been suddenly
afflicted by an incurable disease, and met his death through a
“ceremonial drowning” in the river Tungabhadra). After waiting
in vain for a few more days, Vira Rajendra returned home via
Vengi, subduing on the way the Rattaipadi region, putting to
flight the local Chalukyan Chieftains Devanatha, Sitti and Kesi,
setting fire to towns and erecting a pillar of victory on the banks
of the Tungabhadra. Before leaving the Tungabhadra region,
however, he threw a challenge to the Western Chalukyas, stating
that he was returning home after clearing Vengi nadu of their
overlordship and challenging them to restore it if they could.
The Western Chalukya generals, Jananatha, Rajamayan and
Tipparaja intercepted the Chola army on the banks of the
Krishna at Vijayavada, but were defeated and “driven into
the forest”. Vira Rajendra crowned the Eastern Chalukya
Vijayaditya (VII), who had sought his protection, as the king
of Vengi and after crossing the Godavari into Kalinga and reach-
ing as far as Mahendragiri returned home victorious.
Before adverting to his other wars and conquests, it may be
well to narrate the further developments in the Chola- Western
Chalukya relations. After some continued bitterness and wars,
a major turn for the better took place in the form of a matrimonial
alliance between the two royal families. With the death of Some-
svara I in a.d. 1068, his son Somesvara II ascended the Western
Chalukya throne, but soon fell into evil courses; his brother
Vikramaditya quarrelled with him and left Kalyani (the capital) ;
Vikramaditya was supported by the Kadamba ruler Jayakesi
and his own younger brother Jayasimha. Jayakesi offered his
good offices to bring about a rapprochement between the Cholas
342
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
and Prince Vikramaditya, leading to the intervention of Vira
Rajendra on his behalf; a lightning campaign into the southern
part of the Western Chalukya country followed.
The inscriptions of Somesvara II claim that Vira Rajendra
suffered utter defeat at Gutti (in modern Anantapur district,
A.P.), while the latter’s inscriptions claim that he destroyed
Kampili(nagara), laid siege to Gutti, and set up a pillar of
victory at Karadikkal, and that he drove Somesvara II out of
the region of Irattapadi and the “land of seven and a half lakhs”
and bestowed the Kannada country on Vikramaditya (SII,
III, 83 and 84).
Somesvara II had to part with that part of the empire,
forcibly taken by Vikramaditya. Even this turned out to be a
short-lived arrangement, Vikramaditya becoming the undisputed
ruler of the whole kingdom after driving out Somesvara II from
Kalyani. Capping all these diplomatic and maritial moves, Vira
Rajendra gave his daughter in marriage to Vikramaditya and
this brought peace to the borders between their kingdoms which
had seen some of the bloodiest wars of South Indian history.
We may now turn to his other exploits. In his fifth regnal
year (El, XXI, 38), King Vijayabahu ruling over the south-
eastern part of the island of Sri Lanka known as Rohana — the
only portion of the island not yet brought under Chola rule —
tried to seize the rest of the island ; this threat was met promptly
by Vira Rajendra, who compelled Vijayabahu, with the help of
an overwhelming force, to take to the forest. This was the last
of the Chola victories in the island; Vijayabahu lay low biding
his time, which was soon to come; the disturbed period following
the death of Adhi Rajendra after a few years, led to the Cholas
being thrown out of the island altogether.
We gather from a record of the 7th year (175 of 1894; 266 of
1901; SII, III, 84) that the ruler of Kedah sought succour from
the Chola ruler, presumably having been driven out of his
kingdom of Sri Vijaya by his enemies. In a.d. 1068, Vira
Rajendra had his kingdom restored to him. The prasasti says of
this episode: “tan-kalaladainda mannavarkku Kadaram erindu kodut-
taruli” (SII, V, 468; El, XXV, p. 263).
SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I
343
Vira Rajendra’s prasastis — particularly the longer ones —
begin with “tiruvalar tiral puyattu” ; another opening, used in
shorter prasastis , is “ viramey tunaiyagavum thyagamey aniyagavum” .
He was known by many names, among which are: Sakala-
bhuvanasraya, Medini-vallabha, Maharajadhiraja, Ahavamalla-
kula-kala, Vira Chola, Rajasraya, Karikala, Rajarajendra,
Vallabha-vallabha and Pandya-kulantaka.
The preoccupation with the Chalukyan wars did not in any
way interfere with the smooth running of the administration of
the empire, its principalities and the local self-governing units.
His Kanyakumari inscription claims that Vira Rajendra donated
a ruby for the crown, known as trailokyasara, to adorn Nataraja,
the Lord of Chidambaram; the same inscription also mentions
that he granted brahmadeya lands to as many as 40,000 Vedic
scholars scattered over the Chola, Pandya, Tondai, Ganga and
Kulutha provinces of the empire. From another inscription (El,
XXI, 38, line 7), we learn that Vira Rajendra ruled his empire
from a throne known by the name of “Rajendra Chola Mavali
Vanarayan” set up in the royal palace known as “Chola-Keralan
Maligai” at Gangapuri.
From an inscription of the fifth regnal year of Vira Rajendra
in the Venkatesa Perumal temple at Tirumukkudal situated at
the tri-junction of the rivers Palar, Vegavati and Cheyyar, we
learn of the existence of a Vedic college with an attached hostel
and a hospital (atular-salai) . This inscription, which is perhaps
the longest single document in our recorded history, refers to
gifts for the maintenance of these institutions and also for the
provision of temple-services including food-offerings, celebration
of festivals, feeding of pilgrims going to Tirupati, the recitation
of the Tiruvoymoli, and the repair and maintenance of the temple
( pudukkuppuram ) .
The Vedic college provided for the teaching of the Rig and
Tajur vedas, Rupavatara, and certain agamas and tantras. The
hostel catered for sixty students daily. These benefactions are fully
dealt with in the section on the Venkatesa Perumal temple at
Tirumukkudal in the next chapter.
One of the royal executives by name Rajendra Muvendavelan
344
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
built of stone a shrine for Padambakka Nathar at Tiruvorriyur
and endowed it with a flower garden known by the name of
Vira Rajendran Tiru JVandavanam.
Another of the royal officers, Sivalokan, son of Tiruvenkattu
Nangai, endowed liberally the temple of Tiruvenkattup-Peruman
for the provision of milk and honey abhisheka (ceremonial bath)
and for feeding sivayogins on all days when Aslesha, Yira Rajendra’s
natal star, was in the ascendant. He also endowed a stone pitham
for the deity in the Karanai-Vitankar shrine in the Adipurisvarar
temple at Tiruvorriyur and named it “Vira Rajendran”.
(5) Adhi Rajendra
(a.d. 1069-70)
Vira Rajendra died perhaps at the beginning of a.d. 1070,
and was succeeded by his son, Adhi Rajendra; but soon, there
followed a period of political instability and confusion, which was
happily brief. Adhi Rajendra’s rule did not last long; his pre-
mature death in the same year, the intervention in vain of the
Western Chalukyan ruler, and the emergence of a brilliant leader,
the grandson of the illustrious Rajendra I and heir to the Vengi
throne of the Eastern Chalukyas who later on came to be
known as Kulottunga I, need not detain us here. Kulottunga I’s
accession to the Chola throne brought about the unification of
the two kingdoms under one umbrella and the ushering in of
another brilliant chapter of Chola greatness lasting for a further
period of more than two hundred years.
6
Temples of the Time of the
Successors of Rajendra I
(A) RAJADfflRAJA I
TRIBHUVANI
KANDAMANGALAM VISHNU TEMPLE 81
TIRUVANDARKOYIL PANCHANADISVARAR
TEMPLE 82
TRIBHUVANI VARADARAJA PERUMAL TEMPLE
(NADUVIL VIRANARAYANA VINNAGAR) 83
Tribhuvani (or Tribhuvanai) is a village in the Union Terri-
tory of Pondicherry (Puduchcheri: Early Chola Art, I, pp. 83-85),
20 kms from Pondicherry on the road to Villupuram. It was once
the headquarters of a city-complex called the taniyur of Tri-
bhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam. This taniyur included
the modern Tribhuvani village itself and the following present-
day villages (among others) : Kandamangalam, Tiruvandarkoyil
(Vadugur) and Tirukkanji.
81. Kandamangalam : In this village, 4 kms east of Tribhuvani,
there is a ruined Vishnu temple. On its south wall, there is an
inscription of the nth regnal year of Rajaraja I (with the tiru-
magal pola introduction). It refers to a lamp gift to the temple
of Sentangi Vinnagar Paramasvamin at Tribhuvana-mahadevi
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya on the north bank of the river
346 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
Tribhuvani (Pennar). This seems to be an original inscription,
and this ruined temple is itself presumably the Sentangi Vinnagar
of the inscription (ARE 353 of 1917).
Two fragmentary inscriptions found on slabs and of the tenth
year of Rajaraja I (ARE 356 of 1917) mention a gift of land to
the temple of Sentangi Vinnagar Paramasvamin by the local
assembly meeting in the tirukkavanam (hall) of the temple of
Viranarayana Vinnagar at Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedi-
mangalam. Viranarayana is a title of Parantaka I and Tribhu-
vana-mahadevi the name of a queen of his. The taniyur must
have been named after her, and the Vishnu temple of Viranara-
yana Vinnagar referred to above is the one at the modern town
of Tribhuvani and must have been named after Parantaka I.
Six inscribed slabs built into the walls of the Kandamangalam
temple form an inscription of the twenty-sixth year of Rajaraja I
(ARE 354 of 1917); it refers to a gift of land, constituted into
an agrahara named after Tribhuvana-mahadevi, to the Vishnu
temple called here Jaya(n)tangi Vinnagar (this must be the
same as the Sentangi Vinnagar of the earlier inscriptions) and
to a Siva temple called Sri Kailasam.
Seven other slabs built into the walls of this temple form an
inscription, again of the twenty-sixth year of Rajaraja I (ARE
355 of 1917); it refers to a gift of land to Tiruvaippadi Alvar
(Krishna), perhaps an image installed in the Tribhuvani temple,
by the assembly of Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam. This
inscription also mentions a big irrigation tank in the area called
Viranarayanap-pereri. *
There are two other fragmentary inscriptions, of Rajendra I
and Rajendra II (ARE 355 and 358 of 1917).
Though the above facts throw no light on the date of the
Vishnu temple of Sentangi Vinnagar at Kandamangalam it-
self (except that it was in existence by the 1 ith year of Rajaraja I),
we learn from them that: Kandamangalam was a hamlet of
I ribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam ; the original Vishnu
*This is perhaps identical with the lake, now in disuse, lying at a distance of less than a
kilometre to the west of the Vishnu temple at Tribhuvani.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 347
temple at Tribhuvani must have existed as such from the days
of Parantaka I to those of Rajaraja I (as we shall see below,
it was renovated in the days of Rajendra I) ; and there was a
big irrigation lake in the neighbourhood called Viranarayanap-
pereri, which, like the Viranarayanan (modern Viranam) lake
in South Arcot district and the Madhurantakam tank in Chingle-
put district, must have been excavated by Parantaka I himself.
82. Tiruvandarkoyil ( also called Vadugur ) : This is another hamlet
of the same taniyur , a km east of Tribhuvani. There is an ancient
Siva temple here sung by Sambandar, who calls its deity Tiru-
Vadugur-nathar. It is also called Panchanadisvaram; some
inscriptions refer to the Lord of this temple as Tiruvarai Nakkan
koyil Paramasvamin and others as Tiruvaiyaru Udaiya Maha-
devar (the Tamil equivalent of Panchanadisvarar) (see my Early
Chola Temples , pp. 83-84).
There are three Parakesari inscriptions here, of the fifteenth,
sixteenth and fortieth years (ARE 366, 369 and 376 of 1917), all
referring to the location of the temple as Tiruvandarkoyil in
Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam. We get confirmation
of the conclusion that the taniyur was named after a queen
of Parantaka I’s, since a Parakesari inscription of such a high
regnal year as the fortieth necessarily belongs to Parantaka I,
and it refers to the taniyur by the above name. (The other two
Parakesari inscriptions have also to be ascribed to Parantaka I).
There are four inscriptions of the days of Rajaraja I here.
The earliest of them is of the fifth year and deals with certain
transactions going back to the days of Parantaka I and the
Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III. The local Sabha had borrowed
some silver vessels and gold from the temple, and some lands
were given to the temple in lieu thereof, in the twenty-eighth
year of Krishna III. The inscription makes mention incidentally
of a gift of land made in the fourteenth year of Madiraikonda
Parakesari, i.e., Parantaka I. The existence of this temple in his
days and his political control over this region are again established
(ARE 359 of 1917).
There are two inscriptions of the twelfth year of Rajaraja I.
One relates to a gift for offerings and lamps to the local temple
348
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
by a native of Sikkil (ARE 364 of 1917). The other states that
the assembly of Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalarn met
in the mandapa built by one Mummudi-sola Umbalanatthu-
velan and remitted the taxes on the hamlet of Mundiyan Vallaip-
pakkam purchased by the same individual and given over to
the temple (ARE 362 of 1917).
Finally, an inscription of his twenty-seventh year mentions a
gift of two lamps to the local deity (ARE 361 of 1917). We learn
from it that Marudur alias Parakesarinallur was another hamlet,
lying east, of the taniyur.
From an inscription of the tenth year of Rajendra I, we
learn that he built a palace at Madurai for the residence of his
son appointed Chola-Pandya Viceroy there (ARE 363 of 19x7).
An inscription of the twentieth year of Kulottunga I mentions
a lamp-gift to “the temple of Tiruvaiyaru Udaiya Mahadevar”
(this temple itself) by a brahmana lady of Virasikhamukhach-
cheri alias Sattamangalam (ARE 365 of 1917). Two Vijayanagara
inscriptions merit attention. One of Vira Bukkana Raya, in
Saka 1328 (a.d. 1406) gives us a rare bit of information, namely,
that the Sabha of the taniyur consisted of 4,000 members (ARE
370 of 1917). The other is a record of a gift by the famous Krishna
deva Raya in a.d. 1526.
We thus obtain several valuable pieces of information from
the inscriptions here concerning our mediaeval social and political
institutions: and confirmation of the facts that a taniyur (despite
the name) consisted of several hamlets, that the sabha of a
taniyur met by turns in the temples of the various constituent
hamlets, and that the sabha of this taniyur in particular comprised
as many as 4,000 members (in the Vijayanagara days).
Tirukkanji: The temple here is called that of Ganga Varahes-
varasvamm. There are two inscriptions in it, of the fortieth and
forty-fourth years of Kulottunga I (ARE 215 and 216 of 1919).
According to the first, the tank of the taniyur became full and
bleached its bunds in a storm. 4 he bunds were repaired, a stone
levetment called after Kulottungasolan was constructed by one
Bhutamangalam Udaiyan Orriyuran Bhupalasundaram alias
Solakonar, and placed under the protection of the mahasabha.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 349
The second mentions that the original gift of paddy for the
maintenance of the tank got mixed up with the general dues of
the Sabha, with the result that the maintenance of the tank came
to be neglected. So the gift of paddy was changed to a gift of
land for the same purpose. This demonstrates the periodical
self-check exercised by the local bodies.
83. Tribhuvani: In this village, which must have been the hub
of the taniyur , there is an ancient Vishnu temple, now called the
Varadaraja Perumal temple. From an inscription of the fifth
year of Rajendra I (ARE 174 of 1919), we learn that it was
called Naduvil Viranarayana Vinnagar at Tribhuvana-mahadevi
chaturvedimangalam, a brahmadeya in Jayangondasola mandalam.
Though this inscription, found on the east wall of the temple, is
the earliest inscription on the walls here, the original foundation,
as we have already seen, goes back to the days of Parantaka I.
The earliest inscriptions in the premises of the Vishnu temple
are two of Rajaraja I. Neither of them is on the body of the main
temple. One, of his tenth year, relates to a gift of land for supply-
ing water and for a lamp (ARE 196 of 1919); it is found on a
slab built into the floor of a mandapa. The other, of his twelfth
year, is highly damaged, and is found on a stone slab lying by the
side of the same mandapa (ARE 21 1 of 1919).
We may thus infer that the old foundation of the days of
Parantaka I existed well into the reign of Rajaraja I, and the
re-building took place between the twelfth year of Rajaraja I
and the fifth year of Rajendra I.
The fifth year inscription of Rajendra I further tells us that
this temple was placed under the protection of two regiments,
one of them called the Sri Vaduvur Tillaiyalip Perumpadai —
reminiscent of Rajaraja I placing the Tiruvalisvaram temple
under the protection of the Munru-kai Mahasenai.
In two inscriptions of Rajendra I, of his tenth and sixteenth
years (ARE 196 and 189 of 1919), we find mention of a big lake
named Kokkilanadip-pereri.* [Kokkilanadigal was the name of
a queen of Parantaka I’s (vide SII, XIX, 408).]
*It is perhaps the lake on whose bund the Tiruvandarkoyil temple is situated.
350
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The same sixteenth year inscription mentions that Varakkur,
a devadana village of the temple, was apportioned among 48
tenants, and the village lands were divided into six divisions.
The tenants were not to be subjected to any levies other than
dues to the temple and the Kokkilanadip-pereri.
In one of the other three inscriptions of the days of Rajendral,
mention is made of a matha called the Rajendrasolan matham
for feeding the Vaishnavas “of the eighteen districts” (a tradi-
tional group of adjacent Vishnu temples and their followers) and
of a grant of land made for its maintenance (ARE 187 of 1919).
There are four inscriptions of Rajadhirajal. The most import-
ant of them is the one of his thirtieth regnal year (ARE 176
of 1919), inscribed on the east, north and west walls of the temple.
A charity named Rajendrasolan Uttamagram was instituted to
secure the health of the king (Rajendra I). Perhaps, it was
instituted in about a.d. 1044, the final year of the life and reign
of Rajendra I, but recorded four years later in a.d. 1048 here
(See Note 1).
The endowment consisted of a gift of 72 veils of land yielding
an annual rental of 12,000 kalams of paddy. The grant provided
for offerings and worship on a grand scale ( uttamagram ) to the
deities of Virrirunda Perumal (of the mulasthana), Alagiya
Manavalar and Narasinga Alvar, for the conduct of festivals,
for the recitation of Tiruvoymoli, and for the maintenance of a
Vedic college (including the feeding of twelve teachers and 260
students). We recall the endowment of such an institution of
higher learning at Ennayiram by Rajendra I. (We refer for details
on the Uttamagram to Note I at the end of this section.)
An inscription of the thirty-fifth year (93rd day) gives him
the title of Vijayarajendra deva and records a gift of land to the
Alvar of Iiruvay(h)indrapuram (modern Tiruvendipuram near
Cuddalore : ARE 188 of 1919). Another gift to the same deity
is made in the seventh year of Rajendra deva II (ARE 197 of
I 9 I 9)- An undated record of Rajadhiraja I mentions a service-
mam given to a goldsmith called Arangan Komaran alias Raja-
dhirajap-peruntattan. He was to work for himself and for others
within the city and its hamlets (ARE 210 of 1919).
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 35 1
We have already referred above to an inscription of the days
of Rajendra deva II. Of the three others, one, of his sixth regnal
year, registers an order of the royal secretary (issued at the re-
quest of the Senapati) that none but the resident vellalars of Varakkur
should levy or pay any kind of dues within the village and that
others who did so would be considered to have transgressed the
law (ARE 180 of 1919). Another, of the same year, registers
an order of the assembly altering the classification of the lands
in Puttur alias Jananathanallur which had been formerly granted
for the merit of Udaiyapirattiyar Parantaka Uloga Mahadeviyar.
“Uloga Mahadeviyar” seems to be erroneously used in place of
“Sembiyan Mahadeviyar”. The earlier grant referred to would
appear to have been made in the reign of Rajaraja I (as the term
Jananatha is a surname of that king) for the merit of Sembiyan
Mahadevi, for whom Rajaraja I had boundless devotion. Though
Rajaraja I had a queen called Ulogamahadevi alias Danti Sakti
Vitanki, the prefix “Udaiyapirattiyar Parantakan” suggests
that the lady concerned should be identified with Sembiyan
Mahadevi (ARE 181 of 1919).
Finally, the remaining inscription of Rajendradeva II, of
his seventh year, relates to a gift of land for offerings, made to
the temple of Virasola Vinnagar Alvar by the local assembly
meeting in the Viranarayana Vinnagar Alvar temple. Parantaka I
had both titles “Viranarayana” and “Virasola”. One wonders
if the same temple, or a shrine for a new deity in the same temple,
or a different (unidentified) temple is under reference (ARE 183
of 1919). (See Note 2 on Later Inscriptions at p. 354).
Description of the Temple :
The temple consists of the main shrine dedicated to Varada-
raja Perumal, facing east, with subsidiary shrines for Varamangai
Tayar (in the south-eastern corner of the prakara ), Andal and
Narasimha. The temple campus is enclosed by a wall with a
gateway (without a gopuram) in line with the axis of the central
shrine.
The main shrine reminds one of the Venkatesa Perumal temple
at Tirumukkudal, in that there are no devakoshtas on its walls;
352
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
it consists of a garbhagriha and a mukha- (or ardha-)mandapa forming
a unitary structure, supported by an upapitham of height 1.20 ms
measuring 14.70 ms by 9.20 ms and an adhishthanam of height
1.50 ms measuring 13.00 ms by 7.75 ms. The adhishthanam consists
of the mouldings of upanam, padmam and a rounded kumudam. Over
these mouldings is a lively frieze consisting of mythical animals
such as the yali , kamadhenu and leogriff. Above this frieze and
below the vari, there are a series of miniature sculpture panels,
measuring 30 cms by 15 cms, distributed one below each pilaster;
there are six each on the front and rear adhishthanam walls, and
ten each on the side walls, depicting scenes from the Rama and
Krishna legends and the various incarnations of Vishnu, all of
fine workmanship. There are representations of Padmanidhi
and Sankhanidhi below the pilasters flanking the main entrance
to the mukhamandapa. The pilasters are octagonal with a square
base. At the prastara level, there is a kudu- adorned cornice, with
a bhutagana frieze below it and a ya/z-frieze above it. The sri-
vimana is tri-tala, with a renovated superstructure crowned by a
circular griva and sikhara.
The garbhagriha, which contains stone images of Vishnu,
Bhudevi and Sridevi, is of the sandhara type, the passage measuring
74 cms in width and lighted by three windows, one on each free
facade of the garbhagriha. Internally, it measures 2.24 ms square.
The mukhamandapa measures 4.89 ms. by 5.32 ms. From the prakara,
a flight of four steps in front leads to the mukhamandapa ; the verti-
cal faces of the steps are decorated with sculptures of dancers,
lotus petals, animal designs etc. The flight is flanked by a pair of
sinuous balustrades. From the sides also, there are flights of
steps, similarly decorated, and all seem to be part of the original
complex. There is an open, multi-pillared mandapa in front of the
mukhamandapa (Pis 341 to 356).
The Vishnu temple at Tribhuvani was thus a foundation of
the illustrious Parantaka I. We have records in it of the rich and
eventful history of this temple and the taniyur for over four centu-
ries. Very few Vishnu temples have come down to us with their
original features substantially intact. Most have also suffered
at the hands of the well-intentioned and pious renovators, who
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 353
have let the hideous cement-culture loose on the sacred domain
of temple architecture and sculpture. The Siva temple at Trisu-
lam near Madras has been such a sufferer. May the gods save us
from these monstrosities!
Despite periodical military onslaughts and occasional acts of
vandalism, the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam has survived as the
largest of the Vishnu temples in the Tamil country without much
impairment to its ancient features, enjoying the proud privilege
of having the longest recorded history on its walls. Its origin goes
back to the days of the Ramayana and the Silappadikaram. It is
regrettable that no effort has so far been made to publish a
grand tome on this historic monument such as the French and
Dutch archaeologists have done for those in Indo-China and
Indonesia.
In the course of my survey, I could find only two ancient
Vishnu monuments retaining to a large extent their original
character. They are the Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchi
and the Sundaravarada Perumal temple at Uttaramerur. To
these two, we may perhaps add the cave temple and the adjoining
structural temple of Pundarikaksha at Tiruvellarai in Tiruchy
district. The Varadaraja Perumal temple (Viranarayana Vin-
nagar) at Tribhuvani is still fortunately one of the few Vishnu
temples having some of its old features and preserving some of its
original inscriptions. They give us a vista of the greatness of its
past. Let us hope that earnest efforts will be made to preserve
its rich features in their pristine state.*
♦Like the other important ancient Vishnu temples of Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchi and
Sundaravarada Perumal at Uttaramerur, the Tribhuvani Vishnu temple might have had three
storeys in the srivimana and three shrines one above the other. The enormous stone sculpture
of Pallikondar now lodged in the verandah of a house in a street adjacent to this temple might
have adorned the sanctum in the third tala. This srivimana might have suffered damage at
some unknown period.
354
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
Note i
Rajendrasolan Uttamagram
This charity was established in the temple by the General, Senapati Mavali Vanarayan,
to secure the health of the king Rajendra Chola I. On Wednesday, the 2nd March 1048 a.d.
in the thirtieth year of the reign of Rajadhiraja I, the mahasabha of the taniyur met and purchased
lands in the name of Viranarayana Vinnagar Alvar to meet all the requirements of the above
charity. Seventy-two velis of land were purchased, to yield an annual rental of 12,000 kalams
of paddy, estimated to be the quantity required annually to take care of all the provisions of
charity. Besides providing for offerings, worship etc, on a grand scale to Virrirunda Perumal
(the main deity), Alagiya Manavalar and Narasinga Alvar; for the conduct of festivals on the
occasions of Masi tirup-punarpusam, Jayanti ashtami, Margali tiru-ekadasi, Uttarayana,
Dakshinayana, and the two Vishus (Aippisi and Chittirai) ; for feeding the Sri Vaishnavas;
and for having the Tiruvoymoli recited — all of which required 2,475 kalams of paddy in all annu-
ally; provision was also made for:
(a) three teachers of the Rig Veda, three of the Yajur Veda, one each of Chhandogasama,
Talavakara sama, Apurva, Vajasaneya, Bodhayaniya and Styashta(adha) sutra, making
a total of twelve teachers, with a total daily allowance of four kalams of paddy;
(b) one person each for expounding the Vedanta, Vyakarana, Rupavatara, Ramayana,
Bharata, Manu Sastra and Vaikhanasa Sastra;
(c) sixty students each of the Rig Veda and Yajur Veda, twenty of Chhandogasama, and
50 of other Sastras (making a total of 190 persons) with a total daily ration of 11 kalams,
to kurunis and four nalis; and
(d) seventy other students of the Vedanta, Vyakarana and Rupavatara.
The provision thus made for feeding the teachers and students detailed above consisted
of 9,525 kalams of paddy. Together with the provision for services in the temple mentioned
earlier, the total requirements for the year came to 12,000 kalams, which were directed to be
measured out by the holders of the 72 velis of land purchased and given for the purpose. It was
stipulated that the tarccm (class) of the land should not be altered at the time of any later general
re-classification of lands; that, on this land, no taxes or obligations should be imposed other
than eri-ayam, eri-amanji and padikaval: and that the instructors and students of the Vedas, the
Bhattas who expounded the Sastras etc. were also exempt from certain payments and obligations.
The rest of this huge record is damaged.
Note 2
Later Inscriptions
There are 21 inscriptions of the reign of Kulottunga I in the Vishnu temple at Tribhuvani,
from his 3rd to his 49th years. One of his fifth year (ARE 197 of 1919) mentions a gift of land
for conducting a festival in the temple of Tiru Nagesvaram udaiya Paramasvamin, a Siva temple
in the locality. One of his 6th year (ARE 177 of 1919) registers a gift of land to Kola Varaha
Alvar, a Varaha idol installed in the Tribhuvani temple. Two of his ninth year (ARE 184 &
186 of 1919) record a gift of land and of two house-sites for feeding twenty Vaishnavites. The
assembly met at night in the mandapa in front of the temple of Viranarayana Vinnagar Alvar
(called here “Narnmur mula-deivam” or “the patron-deity of our place”); the donated land was
placed in the twelfth grade (for assessment) on the orders of the king.
Some tax-free lands had already been given to the temple of Udavi Tirumanikkuli Mahadevar
in Merka nadu (a Siva temple located between Cuddalore and Alappakkam of the present
day) but, since they were found insufficient, the local maha sabha made an additional grant
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 355
cif tax-free land to the temple from the area of Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam —
an instance of extension of aid to a neighbouring temple in need (ARE 209 erf 1919).
One (Kpa)rai Tirunarayana Bhattan alias Kavikumuda Chandra Panditar of Manukula-
sanach-cheri composed a kavya on the king, called Kulotlungasola charitai. The mahasabha of the
taniyur received a letter from the king, requesting them to listen to the kavya. The mahasabha
accordingly met in the hall of the temple to listen to the recital of the kavya, and in appreciation
of it, made a gift of land to be enjoyed by the poet and his descendants (27th year: ARE 198
of 1919).
In an eastern hamlet of the city, there was a temple for Durga under the name of Emalattu
Durgaiyar Omkara-sundarii Its lands, flower-gardens and tank were registered under class
twelve and made a gift of to the temple, in the forty-second year of the king, the newly formed
village being called Bhupalasundara vilagam(ARE 207 of 1919).
In his forty-third year, a gift of land for feeding tapasvins and mahesvaras is recorded (ARE
200 of 1919). Another of the same year directed that artisans of any village were to serve only
in their own village and were forbidden to serve outside. Perhaps there was a scarcity of artisans
in the land during the time.
Two inscriptions of the forty-third and forty-ninth years (ARE 204 and 190 of 1919) refer
to the Lord of this temple (presumably) as Ten Tiruvengadattu Emperuman (the Lord of South-
ern Tirupatij in Tribhuvana-mahadevi chaturvedimangalam, described as a brahmadeyam
in Viravatara valanadu, a subdivision of Gangaikondasola valanadu. It is likely that Viravatara
was a biruda of Kulottunga I.
An. inscription of the forty-eighth year registers a gift of land for feeding itinerant sinayogins
and mahesvaras at a local Sivamainam called Tirunavukkarasu matham (ARE 203 of 1919).
Another inscription of lus (ARE 202 of 1919: date lost) refers to a temple called Tiru-merk-
koyti and a gift of land made to it for providing offerings to the deity, for festivals thereof, and
for feeding pilgrims and sampradayins.
According to Vaishnavite hagiology, one Krimikantha Chola is regarded as the persecutor
of Acharya Ramanuja, and he is identified by some Vaishnayite schools of thought with Kulot-
tunga 1. Ramanuja hved in exile from the Tamil country between a.d. 1098 and 1 122, in Melkote
in Karnataka. Tins alleged persecution by Kulottunga I is discussed in Note 3 at the end of
this section. There was extensive royal as well as popular support for Vishnu temples and allied
institutions throughout the reign and realm of Kulottunga I. It is hardly conceivable that this
king persecuted Ramanuja; the latter’s flight to Karnataka must have been in the wake of some
sectarian rivalry, and not to royal or popular hostility to him or his tenets.
There are two inscriptions ol the days of Vikrama Chola. One, of his sixth year (ARE 175
of 1919), mentions a famous general, minister and statesman called Naralokaviran, who played
a distinguished role in the reign of Kulottunga I and in the early years of that of Vikrama Chola.
He was a great builder of temples and made vast additions to existing ones, and his gifts to them
are many and noteworthy. The inscription under reference records a gift of land towards the
temple campus, a hall and a flower-garden for the Siva temple of Arulakara Isvaram Udaiyar
given in the fifth year of the king by Naralokaviran (alias Arumbakkakkilan Madhurantakan
Ponnambalakkuttan alias Porkoyil Tondaimanar, resident of Manavil in Manavil kottam, a
district of Jayangondasola mandalam), for the prosperity of the king and the village. Naraloka-
viran was also known as Arulalan or Arulakaran. He also built a Siva temple of the name of
Arulalesvaram at Madhurantakam (Early Chola Temples, pp. 99-101). The above inscription
also mentions a flower garden for the image of Parantaka deva set up in the temple called that
of Rajarajesvaram Udaiyar (in this area). How we wish we could trace these temples!
The other inscription, of the 9th year (of Vikrama Chola), records a gift of land for weavers
of the anuloma class, who enjoyed the privilege of weaving and supplying clothes to temples
and kings (ARE 208 of 1919).
An inscription of the later Patlava chief Kopperunjinga (a.d. 1246-1279), a contemporary
of Rajaraja Chola III, who hastened the downfall of the Cholas, states that he constructed a
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
356
temple for Herambha Ganapati on the bund of the tank at Tnbhuvam, and that he repaired
its embankment, the sluices and the irrigation channels of the tank (ARE 182 of 1919). We
recall that the same tank was repaired after a storm in the fortieth year of Kulottunga I. Kop-
perunjinga was considerably interested in irrigation projects. The excavation of the Perumal
eri (South Arcot district) and the erection of sluices and the strengthening of the bunds of the
Olugarai eri (in the Pondicherry territory) stand to his credit; so also, the tanks in the neigh-
bourhood of Tiruvannamalai (vide my book in Tamil, Kopperunjinga, and articles in The Journal
of the Madras University).
The last inscription is of the days of the Vijayanagara ruler Viruppanna Udaiyar, dated
Saka 1314 (a.i). 1392). It records a gift of land to the temple of Virrirunda Perumal (identical
with the Viranarayana or Venkatesa Perumal temple) at Tribhuvani.
Note 3
Alleged Persecution of Ramanuja by Kulottunga I
A list of Inscriptions of the time of Kulottunga I relating to gifts (royal and other) to Vishnu
temples is appended below:
Place
Regnalyear
ARE no.
Nature of gift
Arpakkam
2
138/1923
Gift of two lamps to Tiruvil Vinnagar by Queen
Trailokya Mahadevi.
Kanchipuram
3
522/1919
The sabha sold 3 veils of land to Attiyur Alvar
(Varadaraja).
Tirumukkudal
5
i73/»9«5
The mahasabha made the temple-lands tax-free
in lieu of cash received.
Tirukkoyilur
6
125/1900
Gift of land to Tiru Idaikkali Alvar temple.
IO
121/1900
Gift of two lamps, to same temple.
Tribhuvani
6
177/1919
Land-gift to Kola Varaha Alvar.
9
178/1919
Royal gift of 4 veils to Tiruvahindrapura Alvar
9
186/1919
Royal order fixing the rate of land given to a
Vaishnavite feeding-house.
‘3
212/1919
Royal order remitting a tax.
Palayasivaram
IO
21 1/1922
Land sold by sabha to Singapura Alvar in
Rajendrasola Vinnagar.
Udaiyarkoyil (near
Tiruchcherai,
Tanjavur dt.)
16
399/1902
Land-gift to Kulottungasola Vinnagar (on easy
terms) .
Srirangam
15
61/1892
Gift for singing of liruppalli eluchchi and recitation
of Tiruvoymoli.
18
62/1892
Provision for singing of the second decad of
Kulasekhara Alvar’s hymns.
Uttaramerur
19
170/1923
Gift of land and houses to Rajendrasola Vinnagar
for a flower-garden called Kulottungasolan.
Brahmadesam
(North Arcot)
21
269/1915
Gift to Perumandapattu Mahavishnukkal
temple.
Tiruvendipuram
23
136/1902
20 veils as a royal gift to Tiruvayindrapurattu
Alvar temple.
28
—
Ramanuja’s flight to Melkote
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 357
Place Regnal year
ARE no.
Nature of gift
Pennadam
29
234/'929
Perunguri sabha met in the Suttamalli Alvar
temple and made gifts to the Vada Kailasam
Udaiya Mahadevar temple.
38
271/1929
Mandapa built by Malirunjolai, a Minister and
worshipper of Vishnu.
Srimushnam
30
331/1916
Villages gifted to Sri Varaha Alvar temple and
Siva temple.
32
333/1916
The above villages demarcated.
Draksharama
(A.P.)
33
349/1889
Temple of black stone for Vishnu built by a
Pallava feudatory of king.
Narasingapuram
34
344/191°
Shrine for Rama, Sita and Lakshmana built in
(Ching. dt.)
35
349/1910
Madhurantaka Vinnagar and land endowment
for it.
Kar undi ttaikkudi
35
SII.II, 22.
Vishnu temple built in newly organised village
settled with 106 chaturvedis.
Tirukkannapuram
36
519/1922
Lamp-gift
SriviUiputtur
38
551/1926
Lamp-gift
Kanchipuram
39
18/1893
Gold-gift to pujaris of Tiruppadagam temple.
40
8/1921
Land-gift for kitchen use of Ashta-puyakiragattu-
ninrarulina Paramasvamin temple.
48
36/1888
Provision for feeding Sri Vaishnavas during
a festival.
Ennayiram
38
348/1917
Royal order to sabha meeting in Rajaraja Vinnagar
Brahmadesam
4 i
158/1918
for sale of land towards devapratishtha and jala-
pratishtha (temple construction and irrigation
works); followed by a chasing-up order.
Tirukkoshtiyur
(Ramanathapuram dt.)
50
284/1923
Lamp-gift to local Vishnu temple.
At Tribhuvani, we have inscriptions also of the twenty-third, twenty-seventh, twenty-eighth,
forty-second, forty- third and forty-ninth regnal years, relating to miscellaneous subjects (ARE
206, 198, 201, 207, 205 and 203 of 1919) (vide Note 2).
Thus we see that liberal endowments and gifts were made to Vishnu temples and allied
institutions by the king, the members of the royal family, his officers and feudatories, and the
public at large throughout his long reign and large empire. In the face of such overwhelming
evidence, it is difficult to sustain the theory that he was a persecutor of Vaishnavism in general
and of Ramanuja in particular. With very few exceptions, all the Gholas followed a policy
not merely of negative tolerance but of positive interest in other faiths, devout Saivites as they
were. (Also refer to The Colas by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, p.295 and Note 43 on p.300.)*
*The biggest Chola endowments for the promotion of Residential Higher Learning were
located in the Vishnu temples at Ennayiram, Tribhuvani and Tirumukkudal.
358 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES • • -'.t 1
MANNARGUDI
84 KAILASANATHASVAMIN TEMPLE
Mannargudi, the headquarters of the taluk of the same name
in the district of Tanjavur, is an important religious centre of
great antiquity. There are four important temples in the city,
of which the most popular is the Vishnu temple dedicated to
Rajagopalasvamin, at the centre of the city. This temple is very
ancient and would seem to go back at least to the Early Chola
times. It seems to have received considerable attention at the
hands of Rajadhiraja I, who had Vaishnavite leanings, and came
to be known as Rajadhiraja Vinnagaram after him. In the days
of the Later Chola ruler, Kulottunga I, the temple underwent
considerable expansion, similar to what occurred in the temple’
of Nataraja at Chidambaram; and was rechristened Kulottunga-
sola Vinnagaram. The present extensive campus would be attrib-
utable to him. However, during the Nayak period the temple
underwent further renovation at the hands of Vijayaraghava
Nayak of Tanjavur (ARE 102 to 105 and 109 of 1897; Pis
347-348).
Rajadhiraja I bestowed great attention upon the city which
during his days was renamed Rajadhiraja chaturvedimangalam.
The present day Jayangondanatha temple in the outskirts
of the town, was known as Jayangondasolisvaram said to have
been located in the taniyur of Rajadhiraja chaturvedimangalam
during the Middle and Later Chola periods. This temple might
have come into existence during the days of Rajadhiraja I who
perhaps bore the surname of Jayangondasolan* (ARE 85, 87 and
90 of 1897).
There is however definite epigraphical evidence to show that
the present day temple of Kailasanathesvarar in the town was
built during the days of Rajadhiraja I. In a Later Chola in-
scription dated in the 22nd year of Rajaraja III, the temple is
described as Udaiyar Sri Kailasamudaiyar alias Rajadhirajes-
*See temple No. (Jo, Tiruiuilla.ru, ARE 437 of 1965-611.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 359
varam Udaiyar koyil, located in the tanyiur of Rajadhiraja
chaturvedimangalam in Suttavalli valanadu. This is further confirmed
by an inscription of Vira Somesvara who also describes the
temple by the same name. We also learn that this ruler set up
the Amman shrine in the temple campus ( nammuril Udaiyar Sri
Kailayamudaiyarana Irajadkirajesvaramudaiyar koyilil elundaruli vitta
tiruk-kamakkottamudaiya Periya Nachchiyarukku . . . ARE 97 of 1897).
. This temple like others in the town, has undergone consid-
erable renovation in recent times, leaving us little evidence as
to the original architectural features of the Middle Chola period.
Another temple of importance in the town is the Annamalai-
nathar temple; this belongs to the Later Chola period, having
come into existence during the reign of Rajendra III.*
We conclude our account of temples associated with the reign
of Rajadhiraja I with a summary look at some of them located
in Karnataka. These either are in ruins or have even disappeared
without a trace.
ALUR
DESESVARA (MULASTHANAM UDAIYAR)
TEMPLE 85
The village of Alur is at a distance of 4 kms from the taluk
headquarters of Chamarajanagar in Mysore district. Of the five
temples there, we are concerned here only with the Desesvara
temple, whose principal deity bore the name of Mulasthanam
Udaiyar in the Chola days. An inscription found here, on a stone
in five pieces and in Grantha and Tamil, tells us that in the seventh
year of Rajadhiraja I (a.d. 1025), this temple received 20
madais with which certain lands were bought and a grant was
made for offerings to the god Mulasthanam Udaiyar of Alur
(said to be situated in Padi nadu, in Gangaikondasola valanadu
in Mudigondasola mandalam ).
*The inscription no. 514 of Tanjore district in the Topographical list of V. Rangachari — ARE
95 of 1897 — is wrongly attributed to Rajendra I. It belongs to the days of Rajendra III, the
last of the Chola kings.
360
CHIKKALI
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
86 (i) CHANDRASEKHARA (MAHADEVAR) TEMPLE
(ii) PALLIKONDAR SHRINE
Chikkali is a small village in Gundlupet taluk of Mysore
district. Set among the culvitated fields of the village is a ruined
Siva temple, now called the Mahadevar temple, which came into
existence during the Chola hegemony over the Karnataka
region.
According to an inscription dated in the thirty-third regnal
year of Rajadhiraja I (a.d. 1051) one Kesava Rhatta, son of
Achayya of Tore Kaaratti built a temple for the merit and
salvation of his ancestors for twenty -one generations and made a
grant of 100 bhatlas of land, west of the temple garden and also
gave away to the temple six cows to provide for a perpetual lamp
to “the god Mahadeva and the Pallegonda god (Ranganatha)”.
The inscription reads as follows: “Vira Pandyan taleyum
Cheralan sileyum Lankeyum dandalu konda Kovirajakesari varmmarana
wadeyar sri Rajadhiraja devarke yandu 33 avadu svasti strumatu Tore-
karattiya Achayyana magam Kesava Bhattam degulavam madisi tamma
mata pitrigal. iruppatonda talegam paroksha vineyam gaiydu devargge
kotta bhumi degula dontam...” (EC, My, Gn, 93). And Makkayya,
son of Biyalabbe and Rachamma, the son of Mara Vadeya and
grand son of Kongarxi Gavunda of Elandavadi in Vore nadu,
bought land and a grant of 100 bhatlas of dry field and rice land
to the north of Gundila to provide for the perpetual lamp. The
inscription is dated in the Saka year 971 (a.d. 1059). This temple
must have come into existence before this date.
KOTTAGERE
87 RAJENDRASOLISVARAM TEMPLE
Kottagere is a small village in Kunigal taluk of Tumkur
district. The town of Kunigal, the taluk headquarters, lies at a
distance of 70 kms from Bangalore on the road to Poona, and
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 36 1
Kottegere is about three kms from Kunigal, along a district
road skirting a big lake near the village. To the east of the village,
there is a small modern shrine housing a Linga with a nandi
in front. At the base of a pipal tree ( asvatta katte) close by, there
is a stone slab containing an inscription of Rajadhiraja I’s days,
in Grantha and Tamil characters. We gather from it that Kuningil
alias Rajendrasolapuram was the headquarters of Kuningil
nadu, a nagaram, and a centre of activity of the famous merchant
guild called Tisai Ayirattu Ainnurruvar. We also learn that a temple
named Rajendrasolisvaram was built here, and a huge lake
excavated nearby (which exists even now), and that a proces-
sional deity called Rajadhiraja Vitankar was set up. The record
is dated in the 31st year of Rajadhiraja I, five years after the
death of Rajendra I. It is therefore likely that it was built in
honour of Rajendra I during the reign (and sometime before
the thirty-first year) of Rajadhiraja I (a.d. 1049).
The temple is no longer in existence.
KOLAGAALA
GANGESVARAR TEMPLE 88
Kolagaala is a small village, lying one km to the south-east
from the 38th km stone from Mysore on the road from Mysore
to Heggada-devanakotte.
On a stone in front of the Mari temple here, there is an in-
scription dated in Saka 975 as also in the eighth regnal year of
Rajadhiraja I. It mentions that one Rachayya, son of Uttama
Ghola Gavunda of. . . (name of town missing) in Navale nadu
set up the god Gangesvara and endowed the temple with some
lands adjoining one Tavudahalli tank. This Gangesvara temple,
presumably a foundation of the days of Rajadhiraja I, has also
now gone out of existence.
362
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
(B) RAJENDRA DEVA H
TIRUKKOYILUR
TRIVIKRAMA PERUMAL (TIRU IDAIKKALI
8g ALVAR) TEMPLE
Tirukkoyilur is the headquarters of a taluk of that name in
the South Arcot district, and is on the southern bank of the Pen-
nai, about 25 miles (40.23 kms) from Villupuram. Held sacred
by both the Vaishnavites and the Saivites, it was formerly known
as Tirukkovalur; it was the home of the Malayaman Chiefs
(famous from the days of the Tamil Sangam) who held sway
in the region around it — then known as Maladu (or Miladu)
of 2,000 villages, with Koval (short for Kovalur) as their capital.
It is also closely associated with the early Vaishnavite saints
Poygai Alvar, Bhutattalvar and Pey Alvar. There is an ancient
Vishnu temple here, in the western side of the town. The presid-
ing deity is called Trivikrama Perumal now. Tirumangai Alvar
calls Him “T’iru Idaikkali Alvar at Kovalur”.
The temple contains a large number of inscriptions. The
most important is a record of the 6th year of Rajendra deva II
(with the tirumagal maruviya introduction). According to it, .the
central shrine of the temple of Tiruvidaikkali Alvar at Tiruk-
kovalur alias Madhurantaka chaturvedimangalam, which had
been built partly of brick, had become old and had cracked;
one Ranakesari Raman alias Narasimhavarman, “who belonged
to the Bhargava race,” and said to be the governor of the area
of the Miladu-2,000 province, had the old building pulled down,
and rebuilt the central shrine and the mandapa entirely of “fine”
black granite, set up five stupis and also built the enclosing veran-
dah and a mandapa in front of the temple. He is also said to have
presented to the central deity a canopy of pearls. What is of
particular interest to us is that he got re-engraved on the walls
of the new central shrine, true copies of records found on the
walls of the earlier structure (ARE 123 of 1900).
A number of inscriptions relate to the construction of the
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 363
temple. An undated record mentions that a Chief named Raman
Narasingan (same as above?) put up a gold stupi (ARE 118 of
1900). Another undated record states that the central shrine was
built for the merit of “Narasingavarman, Lord of Miladu”
(ARE 120 of 1900). There is no reference to the construction
during the Chola days either of the outer wall ( tirumadil ) or
of any gopuram, but, from a much later record, one of Saluva
Narasimhadeva Maharaja, found on the north wall of the central
shrine and dated in Saka 1393, we learn that the outer Avail, and
a gopuram had collapsed and were repaired by a certain Annama-
rasa (ARE 1 of 1905).
We have referred to the re-engraving of the older records
at the time of reconstruction. One such record, of the twenty-
third year of Rajaraja I, refers to a sale of land; so does another,
of the tweny-fourth year of Rajendra I (ARE 128 of 1900). .
There are a number of Later Chola records also. A sixth
year record of Kulottunga I refers to the conquest of the Ratta
country and states that the Sabha of Tirukkovalur recorded on
stone the boundaries of the villages granted to the Tiruvidaikkali
Alvar temple (ARE 125 of 1900). A Sanskrit verse in honour
of the Trimkrama avatara is found above this inscription. There
are records of the tenth, thirty-first and thirty-second years of
this ruler, all pertaining to gifts (ARE 12 1, 122 and 130 of 1900).
An interesting record of the period of one Chola-Kerala deva
(Kulottunga III?) makes provision for the recitation of 77 m-
nedun-tandagam in the temple (ARE 126 of 1900). The reference
obviously is to the hymns composed by Tirumangai Alvar and
included in the Nalayira divya Prabandham. We learn incidentally
from the inscription that the village and its neighbourhood
were included in the district then called Vanagopadi alias
Madhurantaka valanadu. A Vikrama Pandya record of the
eighth year refers to his victory over the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati
and a gift of two lamps to the temple (ARE 116 of 1900). An
undated inscription of a later date (the name of the king is also
not mentioned) calls this temple Chitrameli Vinnagar alias
Tiruvidaikkali (ARE 1 1 7 of 1900).
This temple may have come into existence even in the days
364
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
of Parantaka I (as a structure partially of brick), since the village
in which it is situated has throughout been known a Madhuran-
taka chaturvedimangalam in the inscriptions. It received
patronage during the days of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I and
was reconstructed of stone in the days of Rajendra deva II.
(Also see pp. 85-89 of Early Chola Temples for an account
of Tirukkoyilur and the Siva temple of Virattanesvarar there.)
OLAKKUR
90 AGASTYESVARAR TEMPLE
Olakkur is reached from the railway station of that name
between Chingleput and Tindivanam stations of the Southern
Railway, and is about 3 kms from the national highway passing
through these two towns. The old temple here is dedicated to
Agastyesvarar.
There are four inscriptions on the south, west and north
faces of the basement of the temple, of which the earliest is one
of the 41st year of Kulottunga I, found on the south face (ARE
351 of 1909). (A record found on the door-post of the entrance
to the temple repeats the contents of this inscription.) According
to it, a private donor paved the floor of the central shrine, set
up the Sripada-pitha (pedestal) and a ney-tangi (lamp-post),
consecrated an image of Vighnesvarar and gifted gold for a lamp
to the temple of Tiru Agattisvaram Udaiya Mahadevar at Ulak-
kaiyur alias Rajamahendranallur (in Oyma nadu alias Vijaya-
rajendra ualanadu, a sub-division of Jayangondasola mandalam).
On the west wall, there is an interesting unfinished record
of the fourth year of Kulottunga II. According to it, Rajendra
deva II had placed 100 kalanjus of gold in the hands of the residents
of Ulakkaiyur for the purpose of building a stone temple for
Agastyesvarar. The people completed only the first five angas
after which work was stopped. It was found that half the money
granted was still unspent, but this amount disappeared owing
to bad times. But the stone temple originally intended by Rajendra
deva II was not completed. The servants of the temple complained
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 365
against this conduct of the villagers, and the latter agreed to
install an image of Somaskandar, which was found wanting in
the temple, since they were not in a position to complete the
construction of the temple in accordance with the original under-
taking before Rajendra deva II. The inscription refers to the
location of the temple as Ulakkaiyur alias Rajamahendranallur,
presumably so named after the short-lived crown prince Raja-
mahendra, son of Rajendra deva II (ARE 353 of 1909).
Then we have an inscription of the fourth year of Rajadhiraja II,
on the south wall. It records a gift of 32 cows and a bull to
the shrine of Vatapi Vitankar in the temple, in expiation for the
donor’s sin of having killed another in a hunting expedition
(ARE 352 of 1909).
From the last inscription here, we come to know of some
concessions given to the kaikkolars (weavers) living in the streets
near the temple, in the days of Ariyana Udaiyar of the Vijaya-
nagara empire.
This temple may thus be considered a foundation of the days
of Rajendra deva II, from whose short-lived crown prince this
village acquired its alternate name of Rajamahendranallur.
The temple seems to have reflected the vicissitudes of the prince
in its uncertain fortunes (Pis 352 to 354).
It is an eka-tala, misra-type temple, consisting of a garbhagriha ,
an ardhamandapa, and a mukhamandapa. The adhishthanam is of stone,
the rest of the structure being in brick. The griva of the srivimana
is circular and the sikhara round. The only surviving devakoshta
sculpture is one of Dakshinamurti. There is a fine image of
Bhairavar in the loose, which perhaps belonged to the subshrine
now no more in existence. The Somaskanda and the Vatapi
Vitankar metallic images gifted to the temple are no longer to
be found. The ill-fated temple still remains in a state of utter
disrepair. This Siva temple is in the custody of a Vaishnavite
family.
366 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
VINNAMANGALAM
91 VIRRIRUNDA PERUMAL KOYIL
Vinnamangalam, situated in the Arani taluk in North Arcot
district has a Vishnu temple on a nearby hill and a big tank: close
by it. Four inscriptions are found in this place. One is a muti-
lated inscription of the seventh year of a Ko-Parakesaripanrnar,
found on a hero-stone planted in the bed of the above tank. The
place is called Vinnamangalam in this inscription also, which
seems ascribable to Parantaka I (ARE 24 of 1899; SII, VI, 460).
Two of the inscriptions are found on the walk of the temple.
One of them, on the south wall, is of the seventh year of Rajendjra
deva II (ARE 21 of 1899; SII, VI, 457) ; it gives the name of the
place as Vinnamangalam alias Vikramachola chaturvedimanga-
lam in Aiyampulugur (-pugalur?) nadu in Perumbanappadi
(vala-?) nadu of Jayangondasola mandalam, and the name, of
the temple as Tirumerkoyil alias Tiru Virrirunda Perumal koyil
alias Nanadesi Vinnagar. We may infer that the alternate name
of the place was after Rajendra I and that the temple was possibly
rebuilt of stone by a nanadesi, presumably a member of the famous
merchant -guild called Nanadesi Tisai Ayiratiu Ainnurruvar.
The other inscription is of the fifth year of Vira Rajendra,
and is on the west wall (ARE 22 of 1899; SII, VI, 458). It refers
to the place in substantially the same terms as the preceding
inscription, but the temple is referred to as Malai Tirumerkoyil
alias Viranarayana Vinnagar Alvar Srikoyil. Perhaps this is a
revival of an older name for the deity in honour of Parantaka I.
If so, our identification of Parakesarivarman in the hero-stone
inscription as Parantaka I gets reinforced, and the original temple
might be a foundation of the days of Parantaka I, rebuilt later
on by the nanadesi.
The last inscription in the place is found on a slab set up in
the north-east corner of the big tank, and is of the days of Vira
Posala (Hoysala) Ramanatha deva of the thirteenth century;
it relates to regulation of fishing rights in the big tank.
We may thus ascribe the original temple to the days of
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 367
Parantaka I and its reconstruction by a nanadesi to the eleventh
century, possibly in the days of Rajendra deva II himself. . .
' ‘ * , ' _
(C) VIRA RAJENDRA
TIRUMUKKUDAL
VENKATESA, PERUMAL TEMPLE 92
We have dealt with the Venkatesa Perumal temple at Tiru-
mukkudal in detail under Rajaraja I. But of considerable histor-
ical interest is the attention that this temple received at the hands
of Vira Rajendra, the last great king of the Middle Chola period.
There is a unique inscription* in this temple which is dated in
the fifth year, 348th day of the reign of this ruler; one of the
biggest inscriptions known so far, it consists of 55 lines of writing
and is engraved in two sections. In the first section the lines are
very long running to a length of 16.76 ms (55 f ee 0 j the entire
waif space covered by the inscription is about 50*20 sq ms
(540 sq. ft).
It gives us an insight into the working of the governmental
machinery at various levels and of the political events of the
first five years and a half of Vira Rajendra s rule. The main
object of the record is to provide for the maintenance of worship
in the temple and for the running of a V edic college with an
attached hostel and a hospital. At the time of engraving the
record, all the four institutions— the temple, the college, the
hostel and the hospital — were housed in one building with separate
accommodation earmarked for each of these institutions.
The king issued this order while he was seated on the, throne
called Rajendrasola Mavali Vanarajan in his palace named So la-
ker alan-tirumaligai at the capital of Gangaikondasolapuram.
This royal order (kelvi) of the king was committed to writing
by a royal officer designated tirumandira-olai (the royal secretary)
and was attested by three other royal officers who bore the desig-
♦Tirumukkudal, according to this inscription, is said to be in Sri Madurantaka chatur-
vedimangalam, a tamyur in Kalattur kottam, a district of Jayangondasola mandalam.
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
368
nation of tirumandiravolai-nayagam. On receipt of this royal order,
certain officers designated eval (authenticating officers) gave
the formal command and this was seconded by thirty-eight lower
officials who belonged to three departments of the State, comprising
six udankuttam (Royal attendants on the king), twenty-eight vidaiyil
(those who issue permits) and four naduvirukkai (arbitrators).
A further stage was gone through in the translation of the order
into action when thirty-two officers of the Accounts Department
belonging to ten sections gathered together, and with four out
of them authorising the entry, one reading out the order and
another making the entry, with a third issuing the revised account,
the order became operative. The substance of the order was
as follows:
The gift to the temple consisted of:
(i) 75 kalanjus of gold, which the residents of the village of
Vayalaikkavur were paying towards the maintenance of a
feeding house ( sala ),
(ii) certain customary dues raised from the same village
which had been assigned as a sala bhoga to the temple of Maha
Vishnu at Tirumukkudal in the second year of the king’s pre-
decessor Parakesarivarman Rajendrasola Deva (who took
Rattapadi seven and a half lakhs), and
(Hi) 72 kalanjus and nine manjadis of gold, which formed
a prior devadana gift.
The income from items ( 1) and ( Hi ) at the rate of 1 6 kalams of
paddy measured by the rajakesari measure* per kalanju amounted
to 1359 kalams and odd. This was converted into the new measure
called arumolidevan which yielded an excess of 884 kalams and odd.
Thus the total income for the temple came to 3243 kalams of paddy
and 216% kasus of gold. The allocation of these among the four
institutions is given below:
( 1 ) The Temple :
(i) Offerings are to be made thrice daily 601 kalams
(morning, noon and night) to the deity (approx)
Sri Raghava-chakravartin (Rama) at noon.
*1 kalam of Rajakesari measure = i kalam, I tuni and 4 nalis of Arumolidevan measure.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 369
(ii) for sandal paste and its ingredients 68f kasus
karpura and kunkumam and for lamps.
( Hi ) for special offerings to be made on the
occasion of festivals in the months of Aippasi
Masi, Kartigai as well as for the hunting
festival and Jayantyashtami (the birthday
of Krishna) .
( iv ) Offerings on the king’s birthday
(falling on the asterism Ashlesha in the
month of Avani )
(v) Purchasing cloth to cover the images
of gods and for offerings to be made on the
birthday asterism of the Vaisya Madavan
Damayan, who built the Jananatha-mandapa
in the temple.
( vi ) expenses to be met on the occasion of
taking out the deity Vennaikkuttan (Krishna)
in procession on the day of Tiruvonam in the
month of Purattasi every year.
( vii ) for meeting the expenses of feeding
Sri Vaishnavas on various festive occasions.
( viii ) for payment to be made to an
astrologer for announcing festivals, the
singer for reciting the Tiruvoymoli hymns,
the cultivators attending the flower garden
of Virasolan, the Vaikhanasa devahanmis (i.e.
priests worshipping the deity according to
Vaikhanasa tenets), the accountant, the potter
and the washerman attached to the temple.
( ix ) for repairs ( pudukkuppuram ) in the
tiruch-churru-maligai to be annually
undertaken.
( x ) for purchasing cloth for various
servants.
28 kalams
and odd.
6 kalams
5 kurunis
2 nalis
6 kalams
5 kurunis
2 nalis
5 kalams
88 kalams
1 1 kumis
4 nalis
382 kalams
6 kurunis
40 kalams
13^ kasus
370
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(2) The Vedic College :
This institution had a staff' on its roll consisting of (i) a teacher
for Rig Veda, remunerated at the rate of 60 kalams of paddy
and 4 kasus per annum, (ii) a teacher for Yajur Veda, also on a
similar remuneration, and (Hi) a Bhatta to explain Vyakarana and
Rupavatara, drawing an annual fee of 120 kalams of paddy and
10 kasus.
(3) The Hostel:
This was attached to the College and had a total strength
of 60 inmates consisting of 10 students ( sattirar ) studying Rig
Veda, 10 studying Yajur Veda, 20 students engaged in the study
of Vyakarana and Rupavatara, 10 Mahapancharatras* 3 Siva-brah-
manas, 5 Vaikhanasas** and two others on studies whose details
are lost in the inscription. They were all fed in the hostel at the
cost of the institution and the feeding expenses, along with the
cost of the sleeping-mats and oil for night study provided to the
students as also oil for a weekly oil-bath on all the 51 Saturdays
of the year, coupled with the wages of the cooks and the maid-
servants who served the students and the teachers, came to
1642 kalams of paddy and 37 and 5/8 kasus in money. It is
interesting to note that the present day South Indian custom of
having an oil bath every Saturday was in vogue even in the elev-
enth century a.d. The students and teachers were provided
with mats for sleeping and provision also existed for oil lamps
for reading by night.
During the Middle Chola period alone we have come across
three instances where the temple functioned as a Vedic College —
one at Ennayiram now in the South Arcot district, dealt with in
detail in our chapter on Rajendra I, another Vedic College
set up in the days of Rajadhiraja I at Tribhuvani (now in the
* Mahapancharatra had five samhitas viz., Paramesvara, Sattavata, Vishvaksena, Khagesvara
and Sri-Pushkara. According to the Varaha Purana, the persons eligible to study Pancharatra
are the first three classes and it was one of the four means of realising God, the other three being
Veda, bakd, and yajna (K.V.Subrahmanya Ayyar, Epi.Ind. Vol.XXI, p.223).
♦♦Evidently, the agamas and tantras, such as the Pancharatra, Saiva and Vatkhanasa were also
taught in the college.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 37 1
Union territory of Pondicherry) and the present one, at Tiru-
mukkudal.
We know that there was provision for expounding certain
subjects in some temples as for instance Vyakarana in the Vyaka-
rana-Vyakhyana-mandapa at Tiruvorriyur. Inscriptions attest to
the fact that certain gifts of land were made to teachers who
were called upon to teach various subjects like the Vedas in the
village itself; gifts were also made to individuals for expounding
the Mahabharata, Somasiddhanta, Prabhakara and Mimamsa. How-
ever, of the three institutions for imparting knowledge of the
Vedas, the biggest would appear to be the college of Ennayiram,
which had a strength of 370 students on its rolls.
(4) The Hospital ( Virasolan Atular-salai) :
This hospital which was named Virasolan, a surname of the
king, had 15 beds and was placed in the charge of a physician who
drew an annual emolument of 90 kalams of paddy and 8 kasus in
addition to a grant of land ; his duties included the prescription
of medicines to the in-patients of the hospital, the servants attached
to the institutions in the temple campus and the teachers and
students of the Vedic College. There was also a surgeon ( Sel -
liyaik-kiriyaip-pannuvan ) attached to the hospital who drew a
remuneration of 30 kalams of paddy; he was assisted by two
persons for fetching medicinal herbs, who drew a pay of 60
kalams of paddy and two kasus. These two persons were
also to supply firewood and attend to the preparation of
medicines. Two nurses, drawing 30 kalams of paddy and
one kasu per annum were attached to the hospital, for attend-
ing on patients and administering medicines. A barber was
also attached to the hospital who received 1 5 kalams of paddy ;
he appears to have attended to minor surgical cases. In addition,
provision was made for meeting the dietary expenses of the
patients.
A lamp was kept burning in the ward throughout the night,
for which a provision of 2 \ kasus per annum was made. In addition,
a waterman was provided for the hospital at a remuneration
of 15 kalams of paddy per annum. Finally, a provision of 40
372
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
kasus was made for stocking
following 20 medicines:
(1) Brahmyam kadumburi
(2) Go-mutra-haritaki
(3) Vasa hartitaki
(4) Dasa-mula-haritaki
(5) Bhallataka-haritaki
(6) Gandira
(7) Balakeranda taila
(8) Lasuady-eranda-taila
(9) Panchaka-taila
(10) U ttama-karnadi-taila
medicines. The stock included the
(11) Sukla. ... sa. grita
(12) Bilvadi-ghrita
(13) Mandukara-vatika
(14) Dravatti
(15) Vimala
(16) Sunetri
(17) Tamradi
(18) Vajrakalpa
(19) Kalyana-lavana and
(20) Purana-ghrita*
The proper administration of the grant was entrusted to the
protection of the members of the mahasabha of Sri Madhurantaka-
chaturvedimangalam .
Thanks to this well-preserved inscription, containing the
royal order giving such elaborate details, we have been able
to get an insight into the working of the temple in ancient days,
which combined in it the roll of the educational institutions
and the tender of the spiritual and physical health of the people.
Temple funds and charities made in favour of temples, thus,
served not merely for the maintenance of temple service and
offerings, but also a larger social purpose of taking care of
educational institutions, hostels, hospitals and other welfare
institutions.
(D) ADHI RAJENDRA
TIRUVAKKARAI
93 VARADARAJA PERUMAL SHRINE
The Chandramoulisvarar temple at Tiruvakkarai, in the
Villupuram taluk of South Arcot district has been dealt with
♦These medicines are found mentioned in well-known Indian medical treatises Charaka-
Susruta-Samhita and Ashtangahridaya.
TEMPLES OF THE TIME OF THE SUCCESSORS OF RAJENDRA I 373
in my Early Chola Art /, and Early Chola Temples. While dealing
with the Siva shrine in this temple in Chapter 2, we mentioned
the existence of a Vishnu shrine in the campus of this temple.
There are four inscriptions of Kulottunga I on the walls
and base of this shrine, three relating to his 27th, 30th, and
41st years, while the one on the west wall of the mandapa in front
of this shrine relates to the 2nd year of Udaiyar Adhirajendra
deva (it is in Grantha and Tamil and incomplete) . But the Sanskrit
portion records that the vimana which had been previously built
by Kochchola of brick was reconstructed of stone. We can,
therefore, take it that the present structure of this shrine be-
longs to the second year of Adhirajendra. This is perhaps one of
the rare contributions made during Adhirajendra’s brief and
uncertain rule of a few months (1067/8 to 1070 a.d. — ARE
205 of 1 904).
The Chandramoulisvarar temple which had its nucleus
in the days of Aditya I grew in size with Sembiyan Mahadevi’s
shrine for the Paramasvamin and Adhirajendra’s new stone
shrine for Varadaraja perumal; in the Later Chola period were
added the Sambuvarayan gopuram and the hundred pillared
hall.
7
Supplement to
Early Chola Temples
(A) VIJAYALAYA
VIKKANAMPUNDI
VISALESVARAR
94 (VIJAYALAYA-CHOLISVARAM) TEMPLE
We have already referred to this temple in our book Early
Chola Art Part I (page 41). This temple is located in an insigni-
ficant village by the name of Vikkanampuridi, also called Vilak-
kanampundi, which is close to the better known village of Rama-
krishnarajupeta, in the Tiruttani taluk of Chingleput district.
The present name of the temple, Visalesvarar is a corruption
of the original name of Vijayalaya-cholisvarar . Two inscriptions
relating to this temple were reported in the Annual Report
on Epigraphy for 1943-44. One of them is a record which can
be dated about a.d. 1378 of Mahamandalesvara Harihararaya II,
found on the two sides of a slab set up in a field opposite the
temple, which states that the Idangai Mahasenaiyar of the region
surrounding Chandragiri met in the place called Idangai-mikaman
of Vijayalisvaram Udaiya Nayanar at Vilakkunipundi in Tiruk-
kattikai nadu, a sub-division of Tirukkattigaikkottam in Jayan-
gondasola mandalam. The next record, dated in Saka 1308
(a.d. 1386) in the period of Bukkana Udaiyar II (Vijayanagara)
is found on a slab set up near the dvajastambha at the entrance
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES
375
to the temple; it contains an agreement made by Ellamarasar
to Vittamarasar to maintain a twilight lamp (for the merit of)
Bokka-raya, from the taxes remitted by the king in favour of the
temple of Vijai(y) atendracholesvaram Udaiya Nayanar at Vilakkuni-
pundi (in Tirukkattikai nadu, a sub-division of Tirukkattigaik-
kottam in Jayangondasola mandalam (ARE 126 and 125 of
1 943-44). Recently, the • Tamil Nadu State Department of
Archaeology has discovered another inscription on the base of the
main temple which relates to the second half of the thirteenth
century (about A.D.1270) and reads as follows:
“ Svasti sri tribhuvana chakravartigal sri vijaya gandagopala devarku
yandu 22-avadu panguni madattu oru nal Udaiyar vijayalisvara-
mudaiyanayanarkku . . . chandiradittavatu sandi vilakku onru
Provision was made for a twilight lamp to the Lord of this temple,
Vijayalisvaram Udaiya Nayanar.
These three records thus confirm that the name of the temple
was Vijayalaya-cholisvaram; it should have come into existence
in the days of Vijayalaya, the founder of the Tanjavur line of
the Cholas; the existence of the temple in this region indirectly
confirms the fact that the kingdom of Vijayalaya extended in the
north at least up to this place. In other words, Tondaimandalam
was already a part of the Chola empire even in the days of
Vijayalaya. So his empire should have spread from Nartta-
malai in the south to Vilakkannapundi in the north. And the
two temples of Vijayalaya-cholisvaram built in the former
locality and Vijayalisvaram in the latter should be considered
as two pillars of victory at the two ends of his empire. Of course,
Aditya I and Parantaka I had to fight against their political
rivals to recover this territory from their control. Scholars hold
that the northern boundary of the Chola kingdom was the north-
ern Vellar, vide map on page 133 of K.A.N. Sastri’s The Colas
(2nd edition), and map opposite page 30 of the History of
the Later Cholas, part I (Tamil - Annamalai University) by
T.V. Sadasiva Pandarattar. The Chola empire extended as
far as the neighbourhood of Tiruttani even during the time of
Vijayalaya. This northern expansion was, of course, not perma-
nent till the days of Rajaraja I.
37 6
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
The Vijayalaya-cholisvaram at Vilakkannampundi is a
misra type of temple. The adhishthanam is of stone and the super-
structure is of brick and stucco. It is a tri-tala structure with an
octagonal sikhara, like that of the Dharmaraja Ratha at Mamalla-
puram. Its stupi is modern. The temple has an ardhamandapa
and a madil of loose stones. The garbhagriha houses a Linga
mounted on an octagonal pitha. There is a panel of Uma-Mahes-
varar in a niche on the rear wall of the sanctum. There are ex-
cellent stone sculptures of the age — a set of Saptamatrikas, flanked
by Ganapati and Virabhadrar (Siva with Toga-patta), Subrah-
manyar, Chandesar, Bhairavar and Durga (Pis 355 to 361).
Perhaps, this temple was an earlier foundation completed
in the days of Vijayalaya and named after him during the period
of his hegemony in this region.
(B) ADITYA I
KOTTAMANGALAM
SRI RAJAKESARI VINNAGARA
95 EMPERUMAN TEMPLE
Kottamangalam is about a kilometre and a half west of
Kattur, which is 3 kms from Lalgudy in the Tiruchy district.
In this village, there are a ruined Siva temple called that of
Brahmisvaram Udaiya Nayanar, an Ayyanar temple, a Pidari
temple and a ruined Vishnu temple (ARE 636 to 659 of 1962-63) .
The area where the Siva and Vishnu temples were built
was called Kiramangalachcheri — a part of Korramangalam
which had as its administrative unit the body called the
Perunguri Mahasbhai in Kalar kurram, included in Vadakarai
Rajaraja valanadu (during and after the days of Rajaraja I).
Kottamangalam was then also called Jananathanallur, after a
title of Rajaraja I.
There are a number of inscriptions relating to the Siva temple
from the tenth to the beginning of the fourteenth century — of
Chola kings Kulottunga I and Vikrama Chola, Hoysala Vira
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY GHOLA TEMPLES 377
Ramanatha and Pandya Jatavarman Vira Pandya (5th year;
a.d. 1301), but they are not of much historical value.
The ruined Vishnu temple about a few metres from the main
road beyond a cocoanut tope is interesting. There are eight in-
scriptions about this temple (ARE 650 to 657 of 1962-63), three
of an unspecified Parakesarivarman (two of them dated in the
eleventh year, 653 and 654), one of an unspecified Raja-
kesarivarman (651), one of the twentieth year of Rajaraja I
(655, a.d. 1005), one of the thirteenth year of Vikrama Chola
(652, a.d. 1 1 31) and one of the thirty-fourth regnal year of
Tribhuvanavira Deva (i.e., Kolottunga III — a.d. 1212).
After a study of these inscriptions, the Government Epi-
graphist states:
“Achchiyan Bhattan Chakrapani Sri Vasudevan, a Brahma-
dhiraja of Peruvengur, figures prominently in 651, 653, 654
and 656 .... All these records may be assigned to the 10th
century on grounds of palaeography. Four inscriptions in
the Ranganathaswami temple at Srirangam dated in the
reign of Parantaka I (ARE 95 of 1936-37, ARE 4x5, 418
and 419 of 1961-62) also record gifts made by Achchiyan
Bhattan Sri Vasudevan Chakrapani, a Brahmadhiraja, of
Peruvengur. It may be noted that the two individuals hailed
from the same place and bear the same title, viz-, Brahma-
dhiraja. It is, therefore, obvious that Chakrapani Sri Vasu-
devan of the Kottamangalam records was the son of Sri
Vasudevan Chakrapani of the Srirangam inscriptions. Since
the inscriptions from Srirangam are dated between the thirty-
ninth and the forty-first year of Parantaka I, the Rajakesari-
varman and Parakesarivarman of the Kottamangalam re-
cords can only be the successors of Parantaka I. No. 651 calls
the deity Sri Vasudeva Vinnagar Emberuman , while nos. 653
and 654 call aparently the same deity as Sri Rajakesari Vinnagar
Emberuman. The former name appears to suggest that the
deity was first named after the donor Chakrapani Sri Vasu-
devan, and that later on the name was changed to Raja-
kesari Vinnagar Emberuman.”
I should like to state at the outset that there is no foundation
378 MIDDLE C 1 IOLA TEMPLES
inscription stating definitely the original name of the main
deity, its author, his name and the date of its construction. Two
inscriptions (653 and 654) refer to an important donor Achchiyan
Bhattan Chakrapani Sri Vasudevan, a Brahmadhiraja of Peru-
vengur, who makes a grant of land for tirumanjanam (sacred
bath) and food offerings during the Vaikuntha Ekadasi day to the
Emperuman of Rajakesari Vinnagar, and the exemption from
land tax is granted by the local sabha. He seems to have been a
person of high standing and influence with the advantage of
wealth and learning. Citing another donor Sri Vasudevan
Chakrapani of Sri Ranganathaswami temple at Srirangam,
who bears the title of Brahmadhiraja and hails from the same
village of Peruvengur, the Epigraphist holds that the Srirangam
donor (of about the 39th and 41st years of Parantaka I) might
be the father of the donor of Kottamangalam and therefore
concludes that the Rajakesarivarman (no. 651) and Parake-
sarivarman (nos. 653, 654 and 656) inscriptions should be assigned
to a period later than that of Parantaka I and that the original
name of the deity was Sri Vasudeva Vinnagar Emperuman.
Ths son and father relationship between the two donors
cannot be said to have been established. On the same basis
the Srirangam-donor may also be the son of the Kottamangalam
donor. This will reverse the order of succession. We await further
evidence to support this hypothesis. In my opinion, the original
name of the deity of Kottamangalam is Sri Rajakesari Vishnu-
griha Emperuman (of the eleventh year of Parakesarivarman
inscriptions), and these two inscriptions (653 and 654) should
be considered earlier than the Rajakesarivarman inscription
(651) according to which the same donor (of 653 and 654)
makes another grant of land to this deity to provide for food
offerings during the ardha-jamam (midnight) service of the
Lord. Perhaps on account of his influence and benefactions to
the temple, he gets the name of the deity changed after his own
name into Sri Vasudeva Vinnagara Emperuman. This new
name does not last long for we find the original name of
Rajakesari Vishnugriha Emperuman asserting itself in an
inscription of the 20th year of Rajaraja I (655 — a.d. 1005)
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES 379
and even as late as the reign of Kulottunga III (thirty-fourth
year of Tribhuvana Vira Deva; 650 — a.d. 1212). If the two
unspecified Parakesari inscriptions (653 and 654) and the Raja-
kesari inscription (651) have to be assigned to the post-Parantaka I
period, they should refer then to Uttama Chola and Rajaraja I;
but pending confirmation of the tentative suggestion of the father
and son relationship of the donors of Srirangam and Kottaman-
galam, I shall proceed on the assumption that the two inscriptions
of this temple concerning Parakesarivarman may be assigned to
Parantaka I. The palaeography of the inscriptions does not
militate against this conclusion. In that case the Rajakesari
inscription (unspecified 651) in which the name of the temple
is given as Sri Vasudeva Vinnagar Emperuman should be
assigned to Gandaraditya (a.d. 963).
It is mentioned in the inscription of Kulottunga Chola III
(Tribhuvana Vira Deva) that the temple of Sri Rajakesari
Vinnagar was reconstructed about a.d. 1212 by the mercantile
guild called the “Ainnurruvar” of the 79 Nadus and 18 Bhumis
and named after them “Ainnurruvar- Vinnagar.” This did not
last long as it is likely to have been destroyed during the subsequent
Muslim invasion, as it lay on the highway from Tiruchy to Gan-
gaikonda-Cholapuram. (PI 362).
The temple is now in ruins. It is unique in many respects
and deserves the attention of scholars. It is a brick temple built
on a granite adhi^thanam. There is now no deity in the sanctum.
A reclining Vishnu figure of stone lying buried near the temple
proves that it was a figure of Anantasayi, the original deity of
this temple. There are a few patches of the old paintings at
least in two layers on the inner walls of the garbhagriha. There
is a dilapidated stone mandapa in front. The temple can be en-
tered by steps on the sides of the ma?idapa. The garbhagriha is a
square structure, while both the griva and the sikhara are circular.*
The temple of Sri Rajakesari Vinnagar may be one of the
temples built on the banks of the Kaveri during the days of
Aditya I, as suggested by the prefix to the name, Rajakesari.
*Vide H. Sarkar’s article on “ Chola Prasadas” in Prof. K.A.N. Sastri Felicitation volume.
380 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
PACHCHIL AMALI S V ARAM (GOPURAPATTI)
96 AMALISVARAR TEMPLE
This is a small village west of Tiruvasi ( alias Tiru Pachchil
Asramam). There is an Early Chola temple in ruins here, but
luckily scientifically renovated and restored to its barest original
features by the Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu. The
Lord of the temple is called Tiru Amalisvaram udaiya Maha-
devar in the inscriptions.
The temple faces west and consists of a garbhagriha and
an ardhamandapa. The superstructure over the garbhagriha has
collapsed.
There are six Chola inscriptions on the walls of this temple.
Two Parakesarivarman inscriptions, both dated in the twelfth
year may be assigned to Uttama Chola. One of them records
the gift of five perpetual lamps ( nilai vilakku) to the Lord of the
temple of Tiru Amalisvaram in Pachchil, by Sembiyan Maha-
devi, the queen of Gandaraditya and mother of Uttama Chola.
The other refers to a gift by Nakkan Viranarayani, queen of
Uttama Chola. She gave a prabha and a pada-pitha (aureola and
pedestal) to the processional metal image of Amali Sundarar
evidently set up by her in this temple for being taken out in
procession during the Vaikasi Visakham festival.
A Parakesarivarman record of the sixteenth year also has
to be attributed to the days of Uttama Chola; it mentions that
the same queen Nakkan Viranarayani set up a metal image of
Uma Paramesvari with a prabha and a pada-pitha, to be taken
out in procession with Amali Sundarar during the Vaikasi Visa-
kham festival.
There are three inscriptions of the days of Rajaraja I. One,
whose date is lost, relates to a gift of land for the supply of oil
for a lamp to the Lord of the temple. One of his tenth year pro-
vides for the gift of a lamp by Sembiyan Mahadevi (who out-
lived her son, well into the reign of Rajaraja I). The third is of
the twenty-first year, and makes provision for the conduct of
special snapana (ceiemonial bath) and food offerings every month
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES 38 1
on the day of Sadayam, the king’s natal star, and also for arranging
every month a processional festival and food offerings on the
day of Avittam, the natal star of Alvar Kundavai Pirattiyar,
the beloved and respected elder sister of Rajaraja I. The donor
was Avanimulududaiyan Marttandan Uttaman, the governor
of Rajaraja valanadu.
This small temple in such unpretentious surroundings has
thus associations with various members of the Chola royal
family. Incidentally, it supplied one of the four hundred talippendir
assigned to the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur from various
temples.
There is a fine stone adhishthanam, with a tripatta kumudam
moulding and two layers of miniature sculptures of high artistic
merit above the kumudam. There are five beautiful devakoshtas on
the walls of the shrine, and the ones on the side walls are
flanked by artistic koshta-pancharas. The devakoshta figures are
Dakshinamurti in the south, Hariharar in the east (rear), and
Durga and Brahma in the north. The image of Ganapati to
be expected in the other southern devakoshta is missing. There is
an excellent stone nandi a little to the west of the temple (Pis
363 to 369).
There is no inscription in this temple prior to the days of
Uttama Chola. However, the devakoshta figures, all of which
are of fine quality, can be assigned to the ninth century a.d.
The Hariharar figure in the rear devakoshta indicates that the
temple may be assigned to the age of Aditya I, in whose reign
alone such wide variations are to be found in the devakoshta
sculptures. It may be recalled that the Adityesvaram (Tiru
Erumbiyur Alvar temple) at Tiruverumbur has Hariharar in
the rear niche of the garhhagriha [Early Chola Art, I, pp.i 14-123).
There is a ruined Vishnu temple called Adi Rangam opposite
to this temple.
While we are at Pachchil Amalisvaram, we may take note
of another ancient temple in the neighbourhood (though it is
a pre-Chola foundation).
382 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
PACHCHIL TIRUMERRALI
PACHCHIL TIRU-
97 MERRALI MAHADEVAR TEMPLE
Nearly 800 ms (half a mile) east of Pachchil Amalisvaram
(Gopurappatti) lies another ancient Siva temple called in in-
scriptions Pachchil Tiru Merrali, its deity being called the
Mahadevar or Udaiyar thereof. At the time of our visit, it was in a
thoroughly dilapidated condition, even the Linga lying flat in the
garbhagriha, dislodged from its original position. It is a huge
fluted Linga. The temple has the features of temples of the Later
Pallava king Narasimhavarman II alias Rajasimha (a.d.
700-728).
The basement of the temple is of stone, and its superstructure
of brick. Stone sculptures of Chandesvarar and two of the Sapta-
matrikas are found in the inner precincts of the temple and a
stone nandi in the east. A fine sculpture of Alingana Chandra-
sekharar found in a neighbouring field may be ascribed to the
Pallava period of about the latter half of the eighth century,
and it is certain to have belonged to this temple. It is illustrated
in Damilica (the journal of the Tamil Nadu Department of
Archaeology), 1970: Plate 8-b.
On the walls of this temple, there are about ten Chola in-
scriptions. The earliest of them are two of the days of Parantaka I,
and a third, which is damaged and whose date is lost, is palaeo-
graphically close to them. One, of his thirty-fifth year, records a
gift of land, and one, of his thirty-sixth year (on the south wall
of the garbhagriha) mentions that a certain Kirti alias Sadasiva
Acharyan, the uvachchan of the temple, made a gift of a lamp
to the Mahadevar of Pachchil Tiru Merrali; Pachchil is said to
be a sub-division of Malanadu.
There is an inscription of the fifth regnal year of a Mummudi
Chola. This title was assumed by both Gandaraditya and Raja-
raja I. Perhaps this inscription should be assigned to the former.
It records the gift of a gold pattam weighing qo kalanjus by the
local standard of weight called Pachchil-kal, by Rajasikhamani
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES 383
Pallavaraiyan alias Nakkan Kilan Paraman Kunjaramallan of
Kurugudi in Tanjavur kurram.
There are three inscriptions of Rajaraja I. One of his third
regnal year records the gift of a lamp to the temple by a dancing
girl called Nakkan Paravai Vallanaippaga Talarkoli by name,
said to be the daughter of the devan (temple-manager?) of the
temple.
Another begins with “tirumagal pola ”, but its date is damaged.
It records the arrangements made by Avanimulududaiyan
Marttanda Uttaman, who was the Chola administrative officer
of the nadu, for special offerings to the deity and for feeding
thirty brahmanas (probably on the days corresponding to the
natal star of the king). We have already noted similar arrange-
ments made by the same officer in the twenty-first regnal year
of Rajaraja I in the neighbouring temple of Amalisvaram.
This temple also supplied one of the four hundred talippendir
deputed to the Rajarajesvaram at Tanjavur.
This temple may be taken to have been built in the latter
half of the eighth century during the rule over this region by the
Later Pallavas, and it was maintained in a prosperous and
flourishing condition during at least the Early and Middle Chola
periods.
TIRUPPAINJILI
NILIVANESVARAR
(NILIVANANATHASVAMI) TEMPLE 98
(i) CENTRAL SHRINE
(ii) VISALAKSHI SHRINE
(iii) KASI VISVANATHAR SHRINE
(iv) TIRUTTALISVARAM UDAIYA NAYANAR
SHRINE
This place lies about two kilometres to the west of Mannach-
chanallur on the Tiruchy-Turaiyur road and about 24 kms from
Tiruchy. The main temple of the village is situated in a grove
of plantain trees. The presiding deity is called Nilivanesvarar.
All the three Nayanmars, Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar,
384
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
have paid their homage to the Lord of this temple. According
to a local legend, Appar felt thirsty and hungry when he was on
his way to the temple. Siva provided him shelter and offered
him food and water to satisfy his needs. Near the left side of the
entrance from the third to the second prakara , there is a mandapa
associated with this miracle. It is pointed out that the tank and
the tope (grove) where the food was offered to Appar is said
to lie about a kilometre and a half to the south of the temple.
The earliest of the Chola inscriptions in this temple is of
of the sixth year, 185th day of Rajendra I (ARE 91 of 1892).
It records the gift of 1 50 kasus to the assembly to supply 64 kalams
of paddy every year for offerings. There are two inscriptions
of Rajadhiraja I which refer to gifts to the temple.
A number of inscriptions of the Later Gholas are also there.
One of the fourteenth year of Vikrama Chola (ARE 164 of
1 938-39) mentions the setting up of a deity named Vikrama-
cholisvaram Udaiyar and refers to the grant of some devadana
lands to it. An inscription of the twenty-fifth year of Parakesari-
varman Rajaraja II (ARE 93 of 1892) refers to a gift to the
goddess whose shrine is in the second prakara of the temple.
A group of deities (Emperumakkal — the three Saiva saints)
is consecrated in the twenty-seventh year of Kulottunga (III)
and a gift is made to it for offerings (ARE 156 of 1938-39).
There are seven inscriptions of Rajaraja III and three of
Rajendra III, besides a number of them relating to the periods of
the Pandya and Vijayanagara rulers.*
Other Inscriptions
*In the south wall of the second prakara, there is an inscription of Vikrama Chola (beginning
with the introduction Pumalai midaindu ) which records a gift of land by Kon Uttamasolanar
Vayiragarayan of Adamangalam in Valikvalak-kurram,a subdivision of Rajendrasola valanadu
for providing offerings during midnight service in the temple (ARE 218 of 1943-44). On the
north wall of the same prakara, there is an inscription of his son Rajakesarivarman Kulottunga
Choladeva (II) dated in his seventh year beginning with the introduction Pumevi valar which
records an order issued while the king was seated on the throne called Anapayan in the palace
at Ayirattali granting as devadana, for providing offerings to the god Mahadevar at Tiruppainjili
the village of Anapayanallur which had been newly formed by adding more lands to Seppalaik-
kudi alias Uttamasolanallur (ARE 216 of 1943-44). There is a record on the south wall of the
same prakara of the days of Parakesarivarman Tribhuvanavira deva regarding a sale of land by
three persons for a flower garden to the temple (called Tiruppainjili Udaiya Nayanar temple)
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES 385
The main shrine consists of a garbhagriha resting on a high
adhishthana, an antarala and a mahamandapa. The srivimana is
ekatala. It has a square sikhara. The devakoshta sculptures are
Dakshinamurti, Ardhanarisvarar and Brahma. There is a Sapta-
matrika group. Among the important Chola bronzes may be
mentioned Nataraja and Sivakami, Ganapati and Pradosha-
murti. This is an Early Chola temple built of stone in the days
of Aditya I. (Pis 370 to 375).
The temple has three prakaras. In the northern side of the
second prakara, there is the Amman shrine of Visalakshi of the
Later Chola period. On the outermost prakara , there is a massive
gateway of stone without a superstructure; this outermost tiruvasal
is of Pandyan construction (thirty-first year of a Konerinmai-
kondan, ARE 94 of 1892).
To the right of the entrance to the third prakara, there are
two Later Chola shrines ; one is that of Kasi Visvanathar which
bears an inscription of the thirty-second regnal year of
Rajaraja III and the other is called the temple of Tiruttalisvaram
Udaiyar. There is on its walls an inscription of the fourth year of
Rajendra III, in which a gift of 100,000 kasus for worship to this
Lord is made (ARE 185 to 187 of 1939).
Beyond this southern (third) prakara, there is a rock-cut
Somaskanda shrine at such a low ground level that it is flushed
with spring water. It is likely to be of Later Pallava or Pandyan
origin. The Pallavas were very much in evidence in this region.
Tiruppattur (Tiruppidavur) has a Pallava temple. The Tiruchy
upper cave bears an inscription of Mahendravarman I; the
the lower cave is of a later date. Srinivasanallur has a hamlet
called Mahendramangalam. Nandivarman II, Dantivarman and
Nandivarman III held sway over this area. The First Pandyan
empire extended upto Pandik-Kodumudi. This place lay on the
(ARE 217 of 1943 - 44 ). We learn that the mandapa at the entrance to the first prakara of the
temple was given the name of “Chera-Pandiyarai-Mummadi-ven-kandan tirumandafiam” , accord-
ing to an inscription on a pillar at this entrance in the timmandapa. Inscriptions on the pillars
in the north and east side of the same (first) prakara give the name of one Nangan Viladarayan
(who raised the verandah presumably) (ARE 214 and 215 of 1943-44).
There is an undated record (possibly of the Vijayanagara days) on a pillar near the flag staff
( dvajastambha ) recording the construction of the dvajastambha-mandapa (ARE 219 of 1943-44).
3 86
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
route to their northern expansion. Therefore, without clear
evidence, the authorship of the rock-cut Somaskanda temple,
which is of about the eighth century a.d., should be kept an
open question. One wonders why it is called the Yama temple —
was it worshipped by him ?
TIRUVASI
MARRARIVARADISVARAR
99 (SAMIVANESVARAR) TEMPLE
Tiruvasi (the corruption of its ancient name of Tiruppachil
Asramam) is on the northern bank of the river Kollidam
(Coleroon), 12 kms from Tiruchy on the road to Musiri and
Salem. On the northern bank of the Kollidam and on the south
side of the main road, there is an ancient early Chola temple
of the period of Aditya I called that of Tiruk-Kadambat-turai
Udaiya Mahadevar (now named Matsyapurisvarar temple)
at Tudaiyar (incorrectly called Turaiyar near Tiruvasi — see
my Early Chola Temples , pp. 2 19-20 and plates 7 to 13 of Supple-
ment to Early Chola Art I). Opposite to this temple there branches
off a country track north of the main road to Musiri. The village
of Pachchil-Asramam and the temple in it are about a km and
a half from this junction. Pachchil or Pachchur is just west of
Tiruvasi but as there is no direct approach to that place, it has
now to be approached by an indirect road through Manachcha-
nallur. At Pachchur there is an Early Chola temple of Aditya I’s
days called that of Pachchil Amalisvaram. Opposite to it is the
ancient ruined Vishnu temple of Adi Rangam. Close to it is
another Siva temple of the late Pallava period called Pachchil
Merrali (of the age of Pallava Rajasimha). The Muttaraiyar
inscription of Niyamam found on pillars of a later mandapa
built in the temple of Sundaresvarar of Sendalai mentions a
famous Tamil poet called Pachchilvel Namban. Pachchur lay
on the highway from the Hoysala capital of Dvarasamudram
to the heart of the Chola country and is referred to in the Tiru-
vendipuram inscription (see my Kopperunjinga — Tamil, p. 88-89),
which describes the release of the Chola king Rajaraja III from
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES
387
Sendamangalam, where the Later Pallava king Kopperunjinga
had kept him in prison (thirteenth century a.d.). With the
enfeeblement of the Chola authority, the Hoysalas who were
connected by marriage with the Cholas, set up a southern capital
at Samayavaram alias Kannanur Koppam, about 8 kms north of
Srirangam, and thus Pachchil became an important place not
only from the religious angle but from a strategy and military
point of view as well. Srirangam and Tiruvanaikka on the one side
and Tiruvellarai on the other have temples of hoary antiquity.
Further down on the main road from Tiruchy to Lalgudy lies
Peruvala-nallur where the great Pallava ruler Paramesvara-
varman I gained a decisive victory over the Western Chalukya
ruler Pulikesin II, who is said to have fled, after the defeat,
with only a rag on his body (seventh century a.d.) .
There are a number of miracles and local traditions relating
to the temple here :
(i) Uma is said to have taken the form of a hamsa (swan)
and worshipped the Lord to gain her Lord’s favour. The Amman
shrine is believed to be the site of her penance and the tank in
its front and associated with her is called Annamam Poygai.
(ii) Brahma is said to have done penance here to regain his
full powers of creation and the Lord is called Brahmapurisvarar.
(in) Ayyadigal Kadavarkon (the Pallava king in the latter
part of the sixth century a.d.) has a hymn on the Lord of
Pachchil-tiru-achchiramam ( asramam ) in his Kshetrak-kovai.
(iv) Sambandar who has a hymn on the Lord of the temple,
calls the Lord Mani-valar kandar (Manikanthesvarar). There
is a miracle connected with him; at the time of his visit to this
temple, the region in the neighbourhood was ruled by a local
chief called Kolli-Malavan. The chief had a daughter, who was
struck down with a fell disease called Muyalagan (akin to polio) .
The ailment defied treatment. So the chief brought the disabled
daughter to the temple and sought divine grace. Just then Sam-
bandar happened to visit the place; naturally he sought the
intervention of Sambandar who sang a hymn praying for His
divine grace ; the daughter was restored to health.
(v) Sundarar of the later eighth and early ninth century a.d.
3 88
MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
(a.d. 820 is said to be his date of beatitude) has visited this place.
In this hymn, he demands gold from the Lord in a challenging
mood that if he did not give, others would. After getting the
gold he questions its fineness and gets satisfaction from the Lord
as to its quality. Hence the deity is called Marrari-varada-Isvarar.
(vi) There is a local legend connecting an episode during
the time of his visit. It is said that there was a Chetty, Kamalan
by name. He was a devotee of the Lord. He was issueless. One
day on his return after worship of the Lord, he found a female
child. His wife was delighted to have this divine gift. Amalai,
as she was called, grew to marriageable age. She was keen on
winning the hand of the Lord of the temple. The father was
desirous of giving her away in marriage to his brother-in-law.
So the latter was told to go to Kasi for worship and on his return
the wedding would be celebrated; so he went. After some months,
Siva appeared in the guise of the brother-in-law of Kamalan
and in the company of Sundaramurti, went to Kamalan’s house
and demanded his bride. The wedding was celebrated. The newly
wedded couple went to the temple for worship. Then suddenly
appeared the real brother-in-law, the Kasi-pilgrim. Everyone
was puzzled and worried. Siva and Amalai hurried past. Amalai
threw her anklet in front of them. So there ran a rivulet called the
Panguni or Silambur nadi now flowing north of the temple.
The worried parents and their followers became dazed when they
witnessed Siva and Uma on the back of their mount Rishabha
disappearing into their ‘abode’. This legend has an echo in the
Vaishnavite legend of Andal in divine love with Sriranganathar.
Even now the seventh day of the Brahmotsavam (the great
festival) is celebrated as the day of the divine wedding.
The sthala-vriksha is Sami or Vanni tree; hence the name of
the place is Samivana-kshetram.
The temple faces east. There are two prakaras excluding the
car streets round the madil of the second prakara. The outer
gateway ( gopuram ) in the second prakara has five storeys. The
Amman temple of Balasundari or Balambikai is in the south-east
corner of the second prakara. The legends of the incarnation of
Lima devi and the sacred tank called Annamam Poygai are old.
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY GHOLA TEMPLES
389
Appar refers, in his hymn of T iru-Nagaik-karonam ( Tiruttandagam ,
stanza 4) to the Annamam Poygai at (Pachchil) Asramam; but
the present structure of the shrine of the goddess is a construction
of the Later Chola period. It is an eka tala structure with a garbha-
griha and an ardhamandapa. On the outer walls of the shrine there
are, in the devakoshtas, sculptures of Vaishnavi, Brahmi, Mahesvari,
Chamundesvari and Indrani (?). On the northern side of the
second prakara close to the inner wall of enclosure, is a shrine
dedicated to Sahasralinga (a Linga with a thousand dimunitive
Lingas around). The inner gopuram at the entrance to the first
prakara has three storeys, in consonance with its ancient character.
The later adornment during renovations would relate only to
the stucco work of the sculptures.
The man shrine consists of the garbhagriha, the ardhamandapa
and the snapana-mandapa whose entrance is guarded by dvara-
palas. It is this gateway that is associated with the place where
Sundarar got his gift of gold from the Lord. The garbhagriha
rests on a high upapitham (62 cms) and an adhishthana (4.35 ms)
anticipating the Rajarajesvaram temple at Tanjavur. It is an
eka-tala structure surmounted by a round sikhara. On the outer
walls of the garbhagriha, there are five devakoshtas housing Ganapati
and Dakshinamurti in the south, Ardhanarisvarar in the west
and Brahma and Durga in the north. There is a bronze Bhogasakti
kept in the garbhagriha.
There are subshrines of Ganapati in the south-west and
Subrahmanyar in the west. The original sculptures of Subrah-
manyar and Vishnu are in the verandah of the tiruch-churru-maligai ;
there is also a sculpture of Somaskanda. The image of Lakshmi
in the western subshrine is modern replacing Jyeshtha devi now
kept on the platform in the south. A bronze of Nataraja dancing
on a snake is kept in this mandapa. Bronzes of Sambandar and
Sundaramurti deserve mention. On the southern platform of the
tiruch-churru-maligai, there are sculptures of the Saptamatrikas,
Ayyanar, and Jyesthadevi displaced from her subshrine by the
later Lakshmi. A Linga named Rajaraja-vitankan is said to have
been installed in the days of Rajaraja I (Pis 378 to 382).
The Epigraphical Department have so far copied only one
390 MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
inscription of the twenty-ninth year of the Hoysala Vira Somes-
vara; ARE 34 of 1891). I understand that there are uncopied
inscriptions of Rajaraja I, Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendrall,
Kulottunga I, Kulottunga II and Rajaraja III; also inscriptions
of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and of the Hoysala Vira Somes-
vara (thirteenth century a.d.) are found in the temple; but as
the temple was undergoing renovation and the inscribed walls
were unapproachable during my two visits, they could not be
verified on the spot. It is hoped that this work will not be further
delayed so that whatever is left without damage or destruction
can be salvaged before it is too late. At my request, the Epigraphi-
cal Department has since copied some of the inscriptions of this
temple. The ardhamandapa is named the Parantaka mandapam,
and the mahamandapa in its front is called the Uttamasolan
tirumandapam.
The temple has existed at least from the days of Ayyadigal
Kadavarkon (the latter half of the sixth century a.d.). The
installation of Ardhanarisvarar in the western devakoshta gives
us the due that the temple was built of stone in the days of
Aditya I. The temple of Pachchil-Asrama-Mahadevar is one of
great celebrity in the Tamil land.
TIRUVANAIKKA(VAL) (JAMBUKESVARAM)
100 JAMBUKESVARAR TEMPLE
In the island formed by the Kaveri and the Kollidam which,
after separating from each other rejoin for a short distance, only
to separate again, there are two famous temples, one dedicated
to Siva at Tiruvanaikka or Jambukesvaram and the other dedi-
cated to Vishnu at Srirangam. The temple at Jambukesvaram is
one of the most celebrated Siva temples in the Tamil land. The
term Tiru-Anaikka would mean “the forest (wood-land) of
the elephant”.
The Linga was a svayambhu, under the white naval tree {Euge-
nia Jambolana) and the Lord came to be named Jambukesvarar;
this Linga is believed to represent the element of water (Appu
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES
391
Linga). In fact, there is a water spring under the Linga. It is said
that a saint Jambumuni ate a jambu fruit and its seed burst forth
into a jambu tree. And the Lord answered his prayers and blessed
him and there stood the Svayambhu Linga before him.
The temple is sung by the three Nayanmars, Appar, Sam-
bandar and Sundarar.
Tradition has it that a four-tusked white elephant lived near
the Chandra-tirtha under the shade of a naval {jambu) tree
and adored the Linga and gained salvation. The tradition goes
on to say that the elephant bathed the Linga with water carried
in its trunk, and adorned it with flowers and offered worship
to it. At the same time, a spider, a fellow devotee, practised its
own mode of worship of the Lord by weaving a web over the
Linga to prevent dry leaves from falling on the deity. The ele-
phant smelling some outside interference with his worship
destroyed the web. The spider felt offended with this outrage
on its freedom of worship, entered into the trunk of the elephant
and stung it so as to cause it mortal pain. Unable to bear the
pain, the elephant dashed itself to death and with it the spider
also died. The devotion of the spider was rewarded in its next
birth by its being raised to be a member of the Choi a royal
family. He was the famous Koch-chenganan or Kochengat-
Cholan, a king of the Cholas of the later Sangam age.
Sekkilar in his Tiruttondar Puranam ( Periya Puranam ) devotes
a chapter to him and after describing this legend mentions that
in the ancient Chola line of the Sangam age, there was a scion
of the house called Subadeva; he and his queen Kamalavati
were issueless; they worshipped the Lord of Tillai* (Chidam-
baram) and prayed for a child to perpetuate the royal line of the
solar race, whose eminent ancestor Sibi cut off and gave away
his own flesh of equal weight to save a dove who sought his
refuge. According to legends, the birth of the child was unnatu-
rally delayed to await the auspicious hour, with the result that
the child had blood-shot eyes; hence his name Sengannan (the
‘Apart from Sekkilar’s reference, it is doubtful if Tillai was an important Saivite centre in
the Sangam age.
392
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
red-eyed). The mother is said to have collapsed soon after the
birth of the child. The child rose to be a great king and a match-
less warrior. After he was crowned king, he won many victories.
The then Chera king with a number of allies fought against his
feudatory called Palaiyan and killed him. Then Kochchenganan
waged war against the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai and
gained a great victory at Kalumalam ; the Chera king was taken
prisoner but he was released at the intervention of the Tamil
poet called Poygaiyar who sang the victor’s glory in his collection
of songs, Kalavali Forty. This eulogy is found mentioned in the
later Tamil works, the Kalingattuparani of Jayangondar and the
Vikrama Cholan Ula of Ottakkuttar. Senganan won other victories
at Venni (Koil-Venni) and Alundai (Tiruvalundur) in the
present-day Tanjavur district in Tamil Nadu.
Senganan was not only a matchless warrior, but also a devoted
follower of Saivism; According to Sekkilar, he is said to have
built many Siva temples all over the Tamil land and many
mansions to the Tillai Three Thousand. The Vaishnavite saint
Tirumangai of the eighth century states in his hymns that he
built seventy madakkoyil for Siva.
Senganan is said to have had a vision of his devotion to the
Lord of Tiruvanaikka in his previous birth and he is credited with
being the first builder of this temple of the Lord under the shade
the Jambu tree. It should have been a small temple with a gateway
inaccessible to an elephant — a rival devotee in his previous birth.
There is another legend that a Chola king of Uraiyur lost
his necklace while having his bath in the Kaveri. On the spot
he prayed that the Lord of Tiruvanaikka accept it as his gift.
The necklace got into the pot of the Kaveri water meant for
the bath of the Lord and the jewel fell on the Lord during his
bath the next day. The miracle is mentioned both by Sundarar
in his Devaram and by Sekkilar in his Periya Puranam.
There are more than 13 1 inscriptions connected with this
temple; almost all of them belong to the Later Cholas (Kulot-
tunga III, Rajaraja III and Rajendra III), the Pandyas of the
Second Empire, the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara emperors
and their viceroys.
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES
393
A fragment of an inscription of Parantaka I (Madirai-konda
Parakesari) is found embedded in the pavement of the inner
prakara of the temple.
The earliest temple of Kochchenganan’s time should have
been rebuilt in the days of Aditya I whose temple building
activities are extolled in the Anbil Plates of Sundara Chola.
There are no records available about the Cholas of the Middle
period. Most of the early records should have been unwittingly
destroyed during the course of the renovation of the central shrine
in the nineteenth century a.d.
From an inscription in the Ujjivanathasvamin temple at
Uyyakkondan-Tirumalai, we come to know that Rajakesari-
varman Vira Rajendra had a palace here and issued certain
gifts while seated on the throne called Abhimanaraman (ARE
462 of 1908).
We are fortunate enough to have a few of the most ancient
sculptures of Aditya I’s age still preserved for us here. Among
them may be mentioned Kshetrapalar (south devakoshta), Brahma
(north devakoshta ) and Ardhanarisvarar (east-rear -devakoshta) . The
installation of Ardhanarisvarar seems to me to clinch the dating
of this earlier main shrine to the age of Aditya I. Mention
may also be made of some sculptures of the old griva — Subrah-
manyar, Uma-Mahesvarar and Dakshinamurti, now kept in the
thousand pillared mandapa of the temple (Pis 383 to 389).
Kali and Nisumbasundani stone sculptures and the bronze
images of Bhikshatanar, Kankalamurti, Sambandar, Manik-
kavasagar and Virabhadrar may belong to the Early and Middle
Chola period. The exquisite architectural beauty of this temple
is eulogised by Fergusson ( Early Chola Temples, p. xiv of Intro-
duction) .
The Sastras prescribe only five prakaras for a temple and this
temple is an eminent instance to exemplify thi. feature. The
Ranganathasvamin temple in Srirangam is, however, an excep-
tion with seven prakaras. The fifth madil (wall of enclosure of
Tiruvanaikka), called the Tirunir-ittar madil, built with the
sacred ashes ( tiru-niru ) as wages was perhaps built by Sundara
Pandya of Madurai in the thirteenth-fourteenth century a.d.;
394
MIDDLE GHOLA TEMPLES
but there is no evidence of its existence in the days of Appar as
claimed by a scholar* (see ARE 77 of 1937-38: vibhuii-prakara -
the gift of Tirunirru Sundara Pandyan) . This madil is being reno-
vated now.
Akhilandesvari Shrine
In the campus of the Siva temple, there is a shrine for the
consort, Akhilandesvari; this should be ascribed to the Later
Ghola age. It is presently an enlarged structure in stone. This
deity was originally a form of Kali to whom perhaps even human
sacrifices were offered. Sankara (eighth century a.d.), as in the
Kamakshi temple at Kanchi, checked Kali’s ferocity by installing
a Sri-chakra in the temple and adorning her ear ornaments with
the tatanka (with an inset of Sri-chakra) . Thus she became a bene-
ficent goddess bestowing blessings and prosperity on her devotees.
(C) PAR ANT AKA I
PALUR (PALUVUR)
SUNDARESVARAR (NAKKAN PARAMESVARAR)
TEMPLE 101
Palur is a village in Tiruchy taluk of the same district. About
800 metres short of Ailur on the Tiruchy-Karur road, a katcha
road branches off to the south to reach an agraharam at the north-
eastern corner of which a Siva temple in ruins is to be found.
This is an Early Chola temple, now called that of Sundaresvarar;
according to the inscriptions on its walls the name of the deity
was Nakkan Paramesvarar ; and Palur itself was called Paluvur,
presumably reflecting the fact that the stala-vriksha of the place
was the banyan tree.
There are fourteen inscriptions on the walls of this temple.
One is of the fortieth year of Parantaka I, eight are of a certain
*Tiruvanaikka Mahakumbhabhishekam Number, dated 5-7-1970, p. 233, and the classi-
fied list of inscriptions relating to this temple by R. Nagaswamy.
SUPPLEMENT TO EARLY GHOLA TEMPLES
395
Rajakesarivarman, ranging in years from the third to the tenth,
and three of a Parakesarivarman, all of the third regnal year.
None of these unspecified inscriptions contains sufficient data to
enable us to ascribe any of them to any particular ruler. On the
north wall of the central shrine of this temple, there are two
inscriptions of the fifth year of a Rajakesarivarman (ARE 346
and 348 of 1918). They record gifts of land for offerings by
Mahimalaya Irukkuvel alias Parantakan Virasolan to the Para-
mesvarar at Tiruppaluvur in Vilattur nadu. In a notef below we
consider the various benefactions of this Chief, who was a Chola
f Note on the benefactions of Mahimalaya Irukkuvel
Mahimalaya Irukkuvel was a powerful Kodumbalur Chieftain and Chola feudatory who
flourished in the first half of the tenth century a.d. How he was related to the line of Irukkuvels
of the time of Bhuti Vikramakesari of the Muvarkoyil inscription of the second half of the same
century, we have no knowing. He himself built temples and made rich gifts to them and to other
temples. We collect below the facts available about such benefactions, during the reigns of
Parantaka I and Gandaraditya.
Period of Parantaka I
( 1 ) Kodumbalur, Muc h u k u n desvarar (Mndnkunram udaiyar} temple
Unpublished inscription of the fourteenth year of the king (a.d. 921): see the Manual of
the Pudukkottai State, Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 1035). Temple of Mudukunram udaiyar built by Mahima-
laya Irukkuvel alias Parantaka Virasolan (also known as Kunjaramallan).
(2) Palur, Sundaresvarar (Nakkan Paramesvarar) temple
ARE 353 of 1918 of the fortieth year of the king (a.d. 947). A gift of gold for a lamp to the
temple by Adittan Karrali Piratti, one of the queens of Parantaka I. The authorship of the
temple is not known, since the record is not a foundation inscription and only records a gift.
Period of Gandaraditya
(1) Kudumiyamalai, Melaikkoyil (rock-cut temple)
Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State, Text, no. 22, third year of the king. Gift of 32 cows for the
supply of milk during three services to the deity by a relative of Udaiyar Mahimalaya Irukkuvel.
(2) Sittur, Agnisvarar temple
Ibid., no. 24, 4th year of the king (damaged record). Grant of three velis of land for food
offerings and of a veli and a half to the drummers who played at the time of the sri-bali service
to the Paramesvarar of Agnisvaram by Parantakan Virasolan alias Mahimalaya Irukkuvel.
(3) Allur, Panchanadisvarar temple
ARE 366 of 1903, of the 5th year of the king (damaged). Gift of gold for a lamp by the son
of Virasolan Ilangovelan (owing to gaps, meaning is not clear).
396 MIDDLE CHOLA TEMPLES
feudatory during the reigns of Parantaka I and his son and suc-
cessor Gandaraditya.
An inscription here of the thirty-ninth year of Kulottunga I
mentions a gift of two villages, Paluvur alias Rajendrasola nallur
and Enadimangalam alias Gangavadinallur, which were clubbed
together into a brahmadeyam for the settlement of 108 brahmanas.
As the name Ayirattali is mentioned in the inscription, the royal
order was presumably issued from that secondary capital (ARE
350 of 1918).
The last inscription in the temple is of the 21st year of a
Konerinmaikondan (ARE 351 of 1918: the king’s name is not
stated; this may be of a Pandya king). It mentions a land-gift
as a janmakkani to the headman of Paluvur in Vila nadu, a sub-
division of Rajagambhira val 
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